
NoYYSTS- Case & C J 

PRESENTED TO THE 

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Theos Kai The nth. 
TRINITY COLLEGE, N. C. 



PERKINS LIBRARY 



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SERIES OF ESSAYS 



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AGRICULTURE & RURAL AFFAIRS 

IN FORTY SEV N NUMBERS. 



BV « AGRICOLA/ 5 

»2 J^urth- Carolina Farmer. 



£ 



Requisitions, nothing 
, nothing: more 
freeman, than AgriCul i 

•■re is the crreai art which I 
\ every proprietor of land to practix 
prove." 

d Igrienlture, thePounrtatioiiBof individ 
national | i 

• 

: e to rnanu/actUreu-^All that can auj 

extend cr.il.zu ,o-.\." 



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VVWVX VVVV\\V1\VV\< \' www 

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* '■ nr JOSEPH I 

1311). 



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A2if. 



TVT.F.1CK 



THF Author, in the Introductory number, has stated 
80 fuliy his views with respect to the o] i^cts o 
.work, and the resources he employed in composing it, 
as to rerdcr almost superfluous any further remarks on 
the subject. Being ei gaged in the pursuits o 
ture, and ardently <i v. t^\ to the e bj his 

experience to stamp much weight: ort the leading princi- 
ples 'f improvement contained in this work, vi£. deep 
and 'or tontal ploughing, the system of inclosing, ma- 
nuring, &c &c. Rut not trusting to I 
gained orfhis own farm, his observation ban ever been 
H on the wlTfg" in marking the modes <;f agriculture arid 
the progress of improvements made on the farms of 
others : and what his personal observation could not sup- 
ply, he has endeavored to obtain bv a corn . 
carried on with the most experienced and di- 
agriculturalists in the different parts of the union — 
Nearly all the numerous letters which he addi 
t.< gentlerrten residing in the most improved i 
districts of our country, containing queues on all the 
leading brandies of rural affairs, were promptly answer- 
ed by them, and in so able and sati factory a manner, as 
ble the author to add much value to this v. oik. — 
He feels grateful to them for their liberal assistant 
lie is sensible that they will receive their merited reward 
in the consciou the utility which their labours 

will impart to this work. The author^ fccces 
cfrosen agricultural i i a period ol several 

\ears, has also • him to select all the latest and 

most improved modes of husbandry contained in agricul- 
tural publications. In making selections, lie has paid 
due regard to our soils and climate, and lias only recou - 
mended such practices as seemed be teti to < i.r 

local circumstances A preference has also been 
to the publications of our own to those eft' for 
tries, as being more decidedly congenial to | 
soils. and climates. Where the 
was abstruse or difficult, he has clothed it in 



PREFACE. 

| • as to be adapted to t ■■■-.> lowe=f capacities; but 

ii w as orij£friall v pi on. h h is .1 
alteration. VVhile the author entirelj mo-v, 

ht was cautwits not to admit any principles noile^of 

ihure into ftfis work, which were not support. 
the m >le authori . 

%i is a lamentable, but :, i>* remark, that our mode? of 
airricuil.ure are miserahiv defective, and requite mu-ch 
veiiLin ; ami in no way, it is conceived, can its 
amelioration be so effectually promoted as. by presenting 
to the great body of our farmers a work, which, by its 
rfheapnesV, is accessible to them ail, ami which at the 
san.e ti:ne , in a short compass, ail necessary in- 

formation, and that too clothed in the plainest Ian; 
for carrying into effect the latest am! most improved 
modes of cultivating the earth to advant ige 

The majority of our Rimers are happily a reading 
people, and When once they get into the habit of reading 
agricultural $o'rk-s, they will be led to reflect, to enquire, 
to compare their own modes of management with those 
recommended; and from whence will aise in their 
minds a conviction ofthe necessity of a change, and that 
for the better. If there be any farmers so prejjfdiced 
us to reject the information contained in agricultural 
publications, hrt them be reminded of the 1 important 
truth, that '• a life may be spent in acquiring informati m 
from individual ex >efiencfc ; but knowledge is soon 
gained from books in wfifth the experience of many is 
Concentrated;" a ti sigrtal amplification, and 

which it were earnestly to be desired our larmers in ge- 

. In fine, it has been the 
. this important k * tmi 
to concentrate the knowledge and ce not 

only of past, L >epl times , as to the most improv- 

ed monies ol cultivating fhe cd\t\i How far this 
maypremote t : .e i for 1 which it was 

writr determine; and whatever ay 

be its fate, the Author cannot be deprived of the i 
fafiun of having used his exertions to i •• mier it 

.c. E AUTIi 



AGRICULTURAL ESSAYS. 



INTRODUCTORY 



NUMEKIl T. 

1 propose communicating to the public, in a suc- 
cession of short Essays, such information or. Agricul- 
ture and llur.al Affairs as I may be able to obtain ei- 
ther from my own experience, that of others, com- 
municated personally to me, or by letter, or from 
the most approve d works written on the subject. I 
shall avail myself of either, or a combination of the 
whole of these resources in writing each number, 
according to rhe nature or importance of the subject. 
With regard to Agricultural Books, I promise that 
'they shall be diligently consulted, and that all in for* 
mation scattered over many volumes which may be 
valuable to farmers, shall be faithfully collected, pro- 
perly arranged, and presented to them. This infor- 
mation, perhaps, will deserve some attention, when 
it is considered that it will be drawn from books that 
are expensive and voluminous, and some of them 
scarce, and therefore, not easily to bj acquired by 
the great body of t\\e people in ny other way. It 
shall slso be clothed in language pi in and perspicu- 
ous, so as to be adapted to the capacities and attain- 
ments of the great body of the people called Far: 
for whose benefit I write ; and as I am one of them, 
and have devoted my interests and efforts in the 
pursuits of Agriculture, it is not to be supposed, that 
•I shall recommend practices to them which a: 



•; . : ft O DOCTOR Y E S S A Y. 

variance with our common interests. The only re- 
ward which I desire, ior the° time and lahor which 
must necessarily be bestowed in acquiring and com- 
municating agricultural information to the public, is 
that it may .have a U ndency to awaken our farmers to 
a better .sense of their interest, and to excite in them 
u spirit of enquiry and research, and a thirst for ac- 
quiring better information than they now possess on 
the subjects of their pursuit. 

Should such a tendency be effected, may we not 
confidently hope that prejudice, the great bar to im- 
provements in agriculture,- will be destroyed, and 
that farmers, when convinced of the ir present im- 
perfect modes of husbandry, will be disposed to en- 
quire after and adopt better. 

Nothing is so well calculated to eradicate these 
Drejudices as well written books on the subject of a- 
griculti'.re. But how few of those books are to be 
found in the houses or libraries of our farmers ; per- 
haps we may find in their possesion a well-written 
»vork on medicine, law and some of the sciences, 
but not one on the subject of agriculture, the most 
important and interesting to them of all temporal 
pursuits, one upon which not only their subsistence, 
comfort and happiness depends, but also that of their 
posterity. 

It is from an ignorance of agriculture, that far- 
mers in general take so little interest and feel so 
little emulation for distinction in their pursuits.— 
By many it is supposed, that agriculture is the-only 
profession which requires little or no skill or previous 
knowhdge, and that a man becomes a farmer as 
soon hs he enters on the possession of a farm. Hence, 
without doubt, arises the-miserable state of agricul- 
ture among us, and the mapy unsuccessful attempts 
by individuals, who have failed from no other cams 
.than the want of sufficient knowledge and experience^ 



ftpiJfUCTOjlT ESSAT. 

Jti North-Carolina, the state of agriculture is at 
the lowest ebb ; 1 speak not tins with reproach, bi?C 
w th the deepest regret. But I am happy to In hold 
a spirit for improvement, and improvements making 
in some sections of -the State, which I h->re will not 
"be local, -but v ill in time extend to every part of if. 

There is a V ce between the present and a 

more pen j u h is I 

done to 'arrive aft this desirable state, Our pr 
is a laiKi- en, which must be altered 

the better; for if persevered in, it must ultim 
issue in want, misery rfml depopulation. Agj 
ture, as an art, consists not in the imp mtmt, 

but in the continual improvement erf the soil, 

To effect these improvements, it behoves m 
liberal fortunes and enterprise (whose means and 
whose intelligence enable them to seek after and a- 
dopt improved modes of agriculture, and to recom- 
mend them to the attention of their fellow-citizens, 
by teaching their utility and practicability) to step 
forward in so laudable an undertaking. No subject 
can be more worthy of the liberal and patriotic mind ; 
nor one which is connected with greater practical 
benefit's and advantages. For u discoveries made in 
the cultivation of the ^earth, are not merely for the 
lime and country in which they are developed, but 
they may be considered as extending to future ages, 
and as ultimately tending to benefit the wh >le human 
race ; as affording subsistence for generations yet to 
come; as multiplying life, and not only multiplying 
life-, but likewise providing for its i&njoi 



FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICUL'i 



No. II. 

►thmg could be of more importance to agricul- 
m to def.ne and establish those principles 
upon which success in its pursuits, depends. Were 
such principles established, agriculture might soon 
be reduced to a regular system, and then it could be 
pursued with certainty and success, which are of the 
utmost importance to its prosperity. Without the 
knowledge of first principles, nothing Can be expect- 
ed from any of the practitioners of agriculture wor- 
thy of attention; men acquainted with first princi- 
ples will never deviate from them, while they find 
.them correct: perhaps they may try some experi- 
ment consistent with them, and succeed. This, then 
is the foundation from which we .are to expect a ra- 
tional system of agriculture, adapted to all the vari- 
eties of soil, climate, and seasons, with which it 
must ever be connected. The completion of such a 
task, however desirable and important, seems almost 
to be hopeless when it is considered, that the princi- 
ples and practice of this art, on which the subsis- 
tence and comforts of the human race so materially' 
-Jenend; should still be subject to varieties in opi- 
:md contrarieties in practice. Notwithstanding 
agriculture remains imperfect, although so many ages 
have elapsed since man was first doomed to cultivate 
the earth, and countless volumes have been written 
>n the modes of fulfilling his destiny ; yet some be* 
nefit may however be derived from the most humble 
attempt at this task, by clearing the way for others 
to pursue k with abler hands. 

1. Industry and atteution to agricultural pursuits, 
and intelligence the rein, are indispensable to it 
success. 



No success in r. ' employme: 

to mankind, is experit. : and in 

that of agriculture, its absence cfertainh 

diets calamity, than in any otltei. -However : '• 
farmers may be in theory, or >us in 

conversation, let their. : e thems 

an opinion that they may disp< 

cessiry of agriculture, and yet ~ke^p their estates 
Let it therefore be im] 

farmer, that all the instruction in the world in 
useful science, will avail nothtn . be want- 

ing« Strict application and close 
3enttal requisites for a farmer; without I 
matter h'ow well his pin 
does not personally a{ 
cannot expect them to succeed 
of rH'arm- r has. 

no end j it is cer' do bu-ir< 

requires more pa.-'. ; • . mi- 

nute objects.; evtry tiling must be attended to, 
ry thing mu«i 1, and every busine 

The true b the Farmti it in 

.irhmg the plough or engaging in- other men" al 

'hces, but in allotting and superintending labour, ir. 
recording its results, and contriving how and where 
to dispose el it to the frtbs "i o read and 

think, and attend the public mar&ets^arid regulate 
accounts, and observe wh in the same oc 

cupation jt. the same neighborhood, uneven at some 
distance, are enraged in, is of the utmost importance* 
to thefarmer who wishes to prosper in his agricul- 
tural pursuits, He should consider himself, A3 en 
gaged in a business, requiring peculiar and mces* 

■jant vigilance ; in a concern, in which occurrin 
tingencies ofte ire a- change of plan. i.\ ',m>:\. 



6 •NCXP1E 

the exercise of judgment is 'perpetually demanded; 
and through the wlnt of a sagacious and presiding 
mind, the manual labour of many, convertible to ex- 
treme advantage, may easily become productive on- 
iy of mischief ; or may have substituted for it negli- 
gence, indolence and dishonesty.. Hence nothing, 
perhaps, has more retarded the improvement of a- 
■griculture, than the erroneous opinion of the simpli- 
city of this science ; a science which is various in 
ks "branches, comprehending almost e^ery source^ 
and opening a multitude of unsuspected avenues to 
profit or loss, that cannot be either known or under- 
stood, but through the medium of correct accounts 
and intelligent and indefatigable attention. Yet, 
'"anners have entirely overlooked this subject, and 
conceive it unnecessary to devote their time an-'J fa- 
ints to this supposed simple business ; and \wieic 
they commence farming; fall into the general prac- 
tice, and let out their ground on shares, or commit 
iheir business entirely to an overseer. Intelligence 
c/ifig will also consist in a freedom from pre- 
judice, that "grea*: bar to improvements in agriculture .- 
Th$ prejudiced farmer may be termed one of those 
who is bugote'dly attached to his' own opinions and 
practices ; he considers all agricultural books as made 
Up of "theory, and views all improvements that may 
be introduced as so many pernicious innovations 
upon his own superior mot|es« Herire he pursues 
he beaten track of his forefathers,- be that either 
^ood or bad, without ever reflecting whether im- 
provements might not be made more Conducive to 
his own prosperity and to the better management of 
his land. Whereas t^e intelligent farmer is always' 
impressed with the opinion, that his modes of agri- 
culture, however good, are still susceptible of im- 
provement ; nor does he shut his eyes against any 
'improvements -that maybe recommended in agrkul- 



treatises ; but receives without prejudice, and 
adopts with alacrity, all improved modes of" husbar 
dry, whose advantages have been tested by experi- 
ence 

2. Without dn; : -provemenL 
Without it, no other operation can be effectual to 

the end proposed.— Wtiec gorged with wa- 

ter it can neither be cleaned or cultivated ; no labor 
is sufficient to do' it, except in a "Kommor. 

drought, and in some soils, not even then. 

If" manure is applied to land in this situation, i' 
will promote the qfttara! grasses more than any kind 
of grain crop. 

But the advantages of draining wet lands are sc 
fully established, that it is needless to enlarge on thir 
subject; suffice it however to say, that expen 
and skilful farmers have in all ages discovered the 
necessity and utility of draining wetlands, by, which 
their health and the value of their farms are much 
Increased. 

3. Cleaning. Thir. article requires the far: 
constant attention, and by this alone can 
effectual. One of the most important principl 
agriculture is cleanly farming. 

It not only pleases the eye and exekes admira- 
tion, but yields more profit, Every fit id in cultiva- 
tion should be kept entirely clean. All swamps and 
marshes should be drained, the growth on them cut 
down or grubbed and entirely removed. Ail hoi- 
lows should be cleaned up in the like manner ; also 
all branchcr and creeks to the very edge of the bankso 
When a field is cultivated in this manner, it has an 
uniform, clean, and beautiful appearance, and when 
in a crop, presents undoubtedly one of the most beau- 
tiful sights in nature. t$e are voluntarily led to 
admire the possessor of such a farm, for his nice and 
superior cultivation. By s^ch cultivation, the eyr 



iPI.ES of AGRICrLTURKr 

is not only feastcfd and an inherent feeling in every 
-nan's breast (a taste lor uniformity) gratified, but 
our most sordid -ire also gratified in the 

greater abundance of the cops under sucft manage- 
ment. Whereas, on the other hand; nothing can 
more disgust or create unfavorable impressions of a 
farmer's skill, than to se~e neids under foul and dfs 
orderly management, Here a pond or marsh uri- 
drained — there a hollow filled with growing shrubr 
or trees--the banks of branches and creeks Govered 
with patches of briars and thickets, &c> 

The Owners of siich fields, if not for their own 
profit's sake, should f v, r their credit's sake as farmers, 
put-their fields in a better state for cultivation. By 
doing so, they would find many acres gained, and 
not un frequently proving the most fertile parts of 
their fields, which before they had considered as 
useless. 

To-these advantages are to be added the greater 
facility which is given to the cultivation of the ground, 
being now entire, whereas before it was tiUed in pat- 
ches, or separate parts, 

I have dwelt the longer on this article from dis- 
covering, to my "greal regret, throughout the state, 
fields and farms in a state of wretched foulness. 

4. Manures will always fail in producing the de- 
sired effect, in proportion as draining and cleaning 
are neglected." 

When manure is applied to wet soils, or those gor- 
ged with water, it is soon dissolved or Wasted; and 
when applied to land that is not clean, it is.imnro- 
bable to suppose that it will have the desired effect, 
as it will promote weeds and the tiatural grasses 
more than anv'kind of grain which may be sown. 

It is a principle well established in agriculture, 
■that soils to which manure is to be applied, should 
be well prepared for its reception* The soli should 



VIR.'T PRINCIPLES OF AGXICITT/rTTRE. 

bt well pulverized, by which means the manure car. 
be more intimately mixed with it, and the mcjrc in- 
timately they are' blended together, the greater the 
benefit both to the crop and the soil. It may with 
truth be asserted, that a fitld well prepared, 
yield a better crop with halt' the manure that another 
one would, of the same soil, which ia badly prepar- 
ed.. This shows the utility ©f draining and cleaning,' 
by this means preparing land well, in order that ma- 
nure when applied to it, may have a full and the ds • 
sired effect; 



FIRST PRINCIPLES- OF AGMCULTi: "■ 

Continued. 

No. ill. 

A change, or a judicious rotation of crops ra 
cessary, in order to keep the soil in good hear, 
to enable it to produce its utmost. 

N*o principle in agriculture appears- to be better 
established, than that a change or rotation of c 
is necessary. The main principles upon which all 
practices on this subject proceed, are, that some crops 
are more exhausting than otherc ; that some, althcP 
of a very impoverishing nature, yet being consumed 
on the farm, return to it a9 much as fchfey dec!; 
from it, and perhaps even more; ?.' witoi 

profitable tillage and accurate 

growth, while by others the lai tared fitful by 

Weeds', is exhausted without return, and when ap- 
plied in succession, will finally impoverish it. Hence 
it has been found by experience, that a certain ar- 
rangement or rotation of crops of U 



$2 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE. 

opposite characters is necessary to profitable tillage 
and to the preservation of the soil. Unless this 
practice he well understood and attended to, the ef- 
forts of the farmer in all others will prove abortive 
and injurious. More land' has been destroyed by an 
injudi ious rotation of rops, than by any other prac- 
tice in the long catalogue of our miserable modes of 
agriculture, the total neglect- of manures excepted* 
The exhausting crops of tobacco, coin and wheat, 
have followed in such rapid succession, without giv- 
ing any thing in return by ameliorating crops, ma- 
nure or rest, as to have produced the general impo- 
verishment of the best lands of our country. There 
is hardly a farm in the state of Virginia or North- 
Carolina, but what exhibits the effects of this exhaus- 
ting. rotation of crops, in its galled and worn-out ap- 
pearance. 

It is an established rule in all good farming, that 
not more than two exhausting crops be taken from 
the soil, before some return is made to it, either in 
manure, an ameliorating crop, as red clover, or in 
3ui];:;ient rest; but not that kind of rest, as it PS 
falsely called, when it is turned out to. pasture and 
severely grazed, 

No two chaff bearing crops should follow in suc- 
cession ; but the farmer should fix upon such a ro- 
tation as will give the necessary proportion of ame- 
liorating with exhausting crops, in order that the 
former may- restore to the earth as much as • the lat- 
ter extracts fjbin it; by attending to this rule, the 
soil will always be kept in good heart and even coi> 
tinue to improve, provided judicious tillage accom- 
pany -the rotation. 

In fixing on a rotation, a farmer should ascertain 
crop?/ are best suited to his farm, and in what 
succession such crops ought to follow each other so 
•v.vke the greatest possible profit, consist* 



7IRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICUI/ITRE. IS 

rvct only with keeping his land in good heart, hut in 
in improving condition. " A judicious rotation of 
crops is the ground- work of general improvement. 
If a judicious system be adopted and persevered in, 
it cannot fail. No modes. of tillage or management 
can make up for a defective rotation. The same 
crop's, which under one system would be unprofita- 
ble and injurious to the land, under another rotation, 
with intervening ameliorating crops, might not only 
oe profitable, but might promote its fertility." 

Selecting and propagating the best heads and ears 
of the mi 'st approved kinds of grain and seeds, is 
the surest method of prest rvirig them in perfection 
Seeds should be selected in the same manner that 
breeders are. .selected. Farmers, to improve their 
stock, pick out the fairest of the particular breed or 
variety they want to improve, and prosecute the im- 
provement with these selected individuals. In the 
garden, and in every field of grain, select such indi- 
vidual plants as excel in vigor and productiveness 
and ripen earliest, under a moral certainty that such 
plants are peculiarly adapted to such a soil and cli- 
mate. Some of the most distinguished farmers of 
our country have acted upon this principle and with 
great success. 

By observing this principle, seeds and grain are 
prevented from degenerating, have been made to ri- 
pen earlier and to increase their prolific powers. 

Liberality is the economy of agriculture. 

Liberality in procuring good tools or implements 
for the hands on a farm is the economy of agricul- 
ture. Good tools are as essential to a farmer as to 
the carpenter or any other mechanic; and all know 
that complete work cannot be expected from the lat- 
fer, in any branch or profession of their trade, without 
the requisite tools. Experience has long taught me 
|frat a greater loss results to the farmer from defec- 



14- FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICTLTURU,. 

;lve implements, than almost from any other cause 
.vhatever; the difference between a good and a bad 
implement, particularly in ploughs, is so great as to 
constitute an enormous saving on a large farm by the 
former ; a good plough will save half the labor of a 
bad one, with the great additional advantages of 
working with more ease to the team, and of doing 
-he work itself better, thereby rendering the custom- 
ary repetitions not only unnecessary, but pernicious* 
Foresight is another item in the economy of agri- 
culture. It consists in preparing work for all wea- 
ther, and doing all work in proper weather, and at 
proper times. But in violation of this rulevnothing 
*s more common than a persistance in ploughing,, 
making hay, cutting wheat, and other works, when 
a small delay might have escaped a great loss ; and 
the labor employed to destroy, would have been em- 
ployed to save. Crops of all kinds are frequently 
planted or sown at improper periods, or "unseasona- 
bly in relation to the weather, from the want of an 
arrangement of the work on a farm, calculated for 
doing every species of it precisely at the periods, 
and in the seasons, most likely to enhance its profit, 
A third item in the economy of agriculture, is not 
'ro kill time by doing the same thing twice over. 
When a thing is done, let it be well done, and it will 
riot require to be done soon again ; this will invaria- 
bly be found to be the best economy with respect to 
all the work executed on the farm. 

In closing this article, I cannot do better than a- 
dopt the language of an eminent Agriculturalist. — 
" Liberality constitutes the economy of agriculture, 
and perhaps it is the solitary human occupation, to 
which the adage, l the more we give, the more we 
shall receive,* can be justly applied. Liberality to 
the earth in manuring and culture ; is the fountain 
of its bounty to us* Liberality to slaves and work- 



• iS OF AG 

ing animals, is the fountain of their pro r :t. i 
rality to domestic brutes is the n of their ma- 

nure. The good work of a strong team, csMi 
profit beyond the bad work of a weak one, after de- 
ducting the additional expense of feeding it ; and it 
saves moreover half the labor of a driver, sunk in 
following a bad one. Liberality in warm houses 
produces health, strength and comfort ; preserver 
the lives of a multitude of domestic animals ; causes 
ail animals to thrive on less food ; and secures 
from damage all kinds of crops. :y in 

the utensils of husbandry, saves labor to a vast ex 
tent, by providing the proper tools for doing both 
the work well and expeditiously — A pinchingghi 
system of agriculture, may indeed keep a farmci 
out of prison, but it will never lodge him in a pa- 
lace. Great proiit depends on great improvements 
of the soil, and great improvements can never be 
made by penurious efforts. The discrimination be- 
tween useful and productive, and useless and barren 
expenses, constitutes the true agricultural secret, for 
acquiring happiness and wealth. A good farmer 
will sow the former with an open hand, and « 
cafe everv seed of the latter." 



-T 01" -LAND-. 

IMPROVEMENT OF LAND. 

No. IV. 

Agriculture, as an art, consists, not in impoverish* 
ing, bet in fertilizing the soil, and making it more. pro- 
ductive than in its natural state. Such is the effect 
of evtry species of agriculture, which can aspire to 
the character of an art. Its object being to furnish 
man with .subsistence, comfort and happiness, what- 
ever defeats that object, is a crime of the first magni- 
tude. It should therefore be our first study to im- 
prove or fertilize our lands, knowing that fertility is 
the firsygand grand object to be attained, as upon this 
only can a good system of agriculture be founded. 
Of what avail is the best rotation of crops, the best 
contrived implements of husbandry, or the most per- 
fect use of those implements, when applied to a barren 
soil I It is absurd to talk of a good system of agricul- 
ture — without discovering, that every such system, to 
be good for any thing, must be bottomed upon fertility. 
Before, therefore, we launch into any system, let us 
first learn how to enrich our lands. The disposition 
of cur soil and climate to reward husbandry bounti- 
fully, is exhibited in the great crops which are pro- 
duced on good latid under almost any species of cul- 
tivation. This is a consideration of high encourage- 
ment, and should induce us, to make it the first ob- 
ject of our efforts to improve our lands, as without 
etTecting this, all other agricultural objects, beneficial 
to ourselves or our country, must fail. 

But, instead of attending to this first and impor- 
tant principle in agriculture, how widely do we de- 
part from it ; for one acre annually enriched,. at least 
twenty are impoverished. 

V* r hat is now the present practice of our farmers,? 



TMPflOV . *» 

Their practice is to clear a piece ef land every year, 
which is very commonly continued until there is lit- 
tle or no wood left, either for fuel or k: 
very often it happens that in the Later stages oftljk 
erroneous conduct, more than' half their cleared hind 
is so far exhausted, as not to be worth cultivation , 
more acres of which, than they annually clear, it ic 
amply within their power to reclaim I r as 

futile as it ever wa3, and thar with hotf 
pense ; yet, strange to tell, e . 
while- the clearing business is pursued with avi 
until at length the fatal blow is struk, an 1 n . ■. - 
-compels them to part with th>eir murdered estates for 
a trifle, and seek refuse ra a new country.. 
- As many are still engaged in the ruinous practice 
of destroying their lands, they are requested to pause, 
and seriously consider the consequences of such a 
system. A system of agriculture whose teuder 
to make land annually less fertile, must finally ter- 
minate in its impoverishment : — and consequently, in 
the want ami misery of its cultivators. It is well 
known -liow prone children .are to follow the example 
of their parents ; if there was no other evidence, the 
conduct of our farmers is full proof of it, who have 
from age to age followed the beaten track of 
fathers, of cutting down their woods and exhausting 
their lands. How then can a father reconcile it to 
his conscience, when he considers that the system of 
farming which he is pursuing must finally terminate 
in the consequences just mentioned, and that although 
he may not live to experience them, yet his pas I 
an ay, who by the force of example, wiil naturally 
adopt the same system. 

How tins consideration may weigh on the minds 
of others I know not, but I must, confess that it has 
;great weight with me; and if there was no other, it 
A induce me to use »tt mv efforts to pur-- 



18 IMPROVEMENT O I 

good system of agriculture, in order that my j 
rity might follow the example, and in consequence 
oMt enjoy an ample subsistence, comfort and inde- 
pendence. 

All that is necessary, to induce farmers to cl 

system of agriculture, from or.e oi exhaustion 
irnpoverishment, to one of renovation and im- 
provement, is to convince them of? Us practicability 
and utility. Farmers in general, are rational and 
intelligent, and when reasons of such weight are pre- 
sented to their minds as to satisfy them that their 
present modes of agriculture are imperfect and rui- 
nous, they will readily abandon them, and a 
those which are calculated not only to be more pro- 
fitable to them and their posterity, but also more be- 
neficial to their country. 

It has been found in- every district and country 
where agriculture is conducted upon a rational plan, 
and is consequently ia an improved and flourishing 
condition, that it is much easier, cheaper, and more 
profitable to improve exhausted lands, than to cut 
clown and reduce to cultivation uncleared or wood 
lands. ' 

Exhausted lands that have been renovated, far 
exceed in uniformly profitable product, any thing. 
known by the cultivators of newly cleared lands. — 
Such lands may, ancj do, throw up luxuriant crops, 
lor a short period ; but their continuance, in a con- 
stant and systematical succession, is not experienced. 
When they are exhausted by bad management, other 
lands must be sought for; to be also worn out by sit 
milar ill treatment. No farmers of well and long 
cultivated fields, now wish to sacrifice their wood 
lands, to the acquisition of a new surface. They 
know the advantages of renovated old lands. 

In all cleared lands that have been exhausted by 
long cultivation., few stumps or roots are to be found; 



.A->ted\i:iLST 01 LAND. 1$ 

Irence three acres of such land can be cultivated with 
mare ease and less labor, than one acre of new 
ground ; and it must be acknowledged by all, that 
the labor and time which are necessary to grub an 
acre of ground, cut dawn the trees upon it, maul 
rails and enclose it — coulter it and prepare it for 
cultivation ; would be more train sufficient to collect 
and make manure enough to manure double that 
quantity of land, so as to produce far more abundant 
crops. 

And every acre made by an improved manege- 
me nt, to .produce as much as two acres, is in effect 
the addition of a new acre; with the great advan- 
tages of enabling us to preserve our wood land for 
fuel, fences and building — bf contracting the space, 
to be cultivated — and of shortening the distance of 
transportation between the fields and the barn or 
farm yard* The necessity of clearing fresh land 
every year will be entirely prevented ; consequently 
from the proposed system of improvement will result 
a vast saving of labor 1 ! a vast saving of land ! and a 
vast saving of profit : 

Are not then these considerations sufficiently 
'weighty to induce us ' to adopt the system of im- 
provement proposed ? 

But there are other considerations which si 
also have their weight. " Both r< :ul patri- 

otism powerfully plead for it; and it is om duty — 
and would be our interest to re-trace our steps, 
should it even take us half a-century of "years tc 
vcr the fertility first found on our lands. But the 
process of improving them is not slow, but 
the 1 rerurns not distant, but near ; and the :, 
-small, but great." . Should -there be any, notwith- 
standing what has been said,;:. >scd M 10 



ROVEMENT OF L- 

fer the murder of the little life left in their lands, to 
the process of improvement, let them pause and for- 
bear ; not for futurity, nor for God's sake, but for 
their own sake." t4 The lobor yet necessary to kill 
the remnant of life left in their lands, will suffice to 
revive them. Employed to kill, it produces want 
and misery to themselves. Employed to revive, it 
gives them plenty and happiness." 



IMPROVEMENT OF LAND, 

Continued, 



No, V. 

Before tt 3 to detail the best modes of im- 

proving land, perhaps it will first be proper to men- 
tion those practices which have combined to pro- 
duce its destruction—- in order that farmers may more 
ly see the propriety of abandoning them, and of 
adopting the modes to be proposed for its renovation 
and improvement. 

The first cause, or the foundation -of all the prac- 
tices which have evidently tended to the impoverish* 
. of cur lands, has arisen from a misconception 
in farmers as to the true business cf agriculture- 
It should never be forgotten, that it is the office 
of agriculture, as an art, to improve, instead of im- 
poverish land. Was this principle duly impressed 
c mind and properly attended to, it would soon 
-e the face of our country, from sterility to fruit- 
fulness, and bestow upon its cultivators plenty and 
happiness, instead of misery and want. 4t Arts im- 
prove the work of nature. When they injure it, they 



IMPROVEMENT 2i 

are not arts, but barbarous customs. It is the busi- 
ness of agriculture, as an art, not to impoverish, but 
to fertilize the soil, and make it more useful than in 
its natural state. From this we discover that far- 
mers have for two centuries past been pursuing a- 
griculture, not as an art, but a barbarous custom ; 
for it is a fact, that lands in their natural state, are 
far more valuable, than those which have undergo;,, 
our habit of agriculture, of which emigrations in- 
complete proofs." 

Unless farmers are fully impressed with the ne- 
cessity of attending to the principle, that l it is the 
business of agriculture to improve, instead of impo- 
verish land,' it will be needless to point cut any 
modes of improving land, as they would be disre- 
garded and neglected, as they have heretofore been. 
It is high time for farmers to rescue their profession 
from that decline and degradation under which it 
has so long languished ; and to cousider and pursue 
it as an art capable of the highest improvement, and 
not only worthy of their attention, but of the talents 
and attainments of our wisest men, 

The following, among many other practices, have 
evidently combined to prod nee the impoverishnv 
of cur lands, which should be abandoned by ail those 
(as soon as circumstances will possibly permit) who 
wish to adopt the more rational system of improve- 
ment. 

1. Giving overseers a part of the crop. 4 This ne- 
cessary class of men are bribed by farmers, not to 
improve, but to impoverish their land, by a share of 
the crop for one year. The farm generally is sur- 
rendered to the transient overseer, whose salary is 
increased in proportion as he can impoverish the 
land. The greatest annual crop, and net the most 
judicious culture, advances his interest, and establish- 
es his character ; and the fees of these land doctors 



are much higher for killing, than for curing. It is 
common for an •industrious overseer, alter a very 
few years, to quit a farm on account of the barren- 
ness occasioned by his own industry; .and frequent 
changes of overseers, each striving to extract the 
remnant of fertility left by his predecessor, combines 
with our agricultural ignorance, to form the comple- 
test system of impoverishment, of which any other 
country ciin boast.' 

The improvement of land, by the modes hereafter 
to be detailed, will be foiflhu to be entirely incompa- 
tible with the practice of giving overseers a part of 
the crop ; for this custom injures both employers 
and overseers, .by gradually diminishing the mcome 
of the former, and of course, that of the latter.— 
Wag.- u should be the substitute for a part 

of the ciop — which would correspond with a gradu- 
al system of Li aent, by which the condition of 
both r .... vould be annually bettered — and skill 
in iinprgving-, not a murderous industry in destroy- 
ing land, would soon become a recomme»dation to 
business, and the rule of compensation. 

2. The system of tillage which has generally been 
pursued under the name of the three- shift system, 
has also tended greatly to the destruction of our 
lands. This system is Indian corn, wheat, pasture 
under it, the great body of the farm receives no ma- 
nure, and no rest; and the result is, that the phrase 
41 the land is killed and must be turned out," has 
become common over a great portion oi the United 
States. 

It will be granted by every reader, that *,oth In- 
dian corn and wheat are exhausting crops ; there 
can, of course, remain no doubt, but that this system 
-impoverishes land two years in three. The only 
question then is s whether this loss will be compensa- 
ted, by grazing the field bare during the tliird year* 



« 
: OF LAND, 



From whence is this recompense to c The 

ground being loose and open by recci »ge, and 

uprotccted by a strong sward, is e. II the 

injury the tooth and the hoof can ii stock 

are turned in — all vegetation is eat c und 

is M trod to death," by which its p< 
all refreshments from the atntios] and its * 

surface exposed to the heat of a summer's sun. which 
is able to pierce and expel from stone itself. The 
same land is again put in corn, and undergoes the 
same system of tillage, by which it is soon destroy- 
ed. * This three-shift system has only one merit ; 
honesty. In theory it promises to kill our lands ; hi 
practice it fulfils its promise/ 

3. The neglect of manures. Nothing has r 
betrayed a want either of industry or of agricultural 
skill among farmers, than their great neglect of ma- 
nures. Instead of pursuing the only rational n 

for having a flourishing system of agriculture,— 
of giving to the earth as much or more than they 
take from it ; — they have, on the contrary, continu- 
ed to extract txl, . rops, from the eai . 
every year, without bestowing upon it hardly one 
dust of manure in return. Uiuhr such a ^stem as 
this, the richest ground in the world W 
impoverished and rendered unproductive. 

4. Injudicious culture. As much land has been 
more speedily destroyed by washing, arising from 
injudicious culture, as perhaps from any other ■ 
whatever. If we cast our eyes over the country, we 
shall find that all hilly lands that h anytime 
in cultivation, are sterile, not so much by the crops 
cultivated thereon, as by the soil itself being remov- 
ed by washing. This evil has principally arisen from 
the practice of shallow ploughing. If ever a mate- 
rial reformation takes place in our system of agri.- 



24 i-mproyemi:nt Of lantj. 

culture, it will chiefly be founded on deep and hori- 
zontal ploughing. 

la North Carolina, it has been- found that the ef- 
fects of shallow ploughing on hilly. lands terminate 
in the destruction of the soil* In the improved dis- 
tricts of Virginia, it is found from experience, that 
when deep and horizontal ploughing are combined 
they effectually prevent • land from washing, an evil 
"which hod heretofore been so much dreaded. 

In fine, to effect the improvement of our lands, I 
would propose, that the system by which they have 
been reduced to tbeir present state of poverty, be in 
.all- points -.reversed* • 

They have been reduced principally by shallow 
-ploughing,' an ill chosen rotation of crops, and a total 
neglect: of manures. Let them be recruited by deep 
and' hrorizontak^pioughiiig, a favorable rotation -of 
crops, and ail the manure which the most sk'i'ul ar.d. 
industrious management will; afford*, 



tfMPROVEMET OF LAND, 
Continued 



No VY. 
• 
The modes of improvement best adopted to our 

•soil, climate and circumbtances,*and which therefore 
particularly deserve our attention, may be summed 
tip and cc'inbir.td in the following simple means, viz. 

"1st. Manuring. 2nd. Good ploughing-. 3. The cul- 
tivation of artificial grasses, and 4th. Inclosing. — 
These means if skilfully and industriously applied, 
\vi 1 be found to constitute the most effectual mock^ 
of improving those vast bodies of exhausted •lands 
with which our state too unfortunately. abounds, and 
which are the principal object of solicitude. There 
may be other modes which may be preferable ior 
lands in good heart, but there are none which will be 
found to promote the improvement of lands deficient 
in fertility in so cheap, certain and rapid a manner, 
Ar\ opinion too generally prevails with farmers, 
especially those who have not made the experiment, 
that the common resources for manuring are scanty 
and unequal to the end of fertilizing a poor soil. — 
This opinion is the offspring of a want of industry 
or skill to collect, or combine them with the other 
specified means. By preserving every species of 
litter, especially corn italks, and applying it before or 
about the commencement of fermentation ; by pen- 
ning every species of stock in summer, slightly lit- 
tering their pens with leaves or straw, and folding 
them on litter in winter ; and by preserving the ma- 



*Tbe author's. remarks are confined to North-Carolina, yet they 
may be well applied to several of the adjomuig slates* 



IMPROVEMENT OF L.\ 

mire arising from both means, from being wasted by 
premature putrescence or evaporation, a poor farm 
may be gradually improved, until it will yield inter- 
rial resourses, adequate to a copious annual manur- 
ing of one seventh at least of its arable contents. 

By good ploughing, is principally to be understood 
deep ploughing, which may be considered as the ba- 
sis of all other improvements, as upon it depend the 
improvement and preservation of the soil. If ma- 
nure is to be applied to the soil, deep ploughing is 
rendered highly necessary to insure and prolong its 
effects by depositing it deep, thereby securing it from 
evaporation and from being washed off by rain. Deep 
ploughing is the only sure remedy against washing 
in hilly lands, particularly if combined with horizon- 
tal ploughing. 

All worn-out fields, which have been turned out 
and grown up in broom sedge, may be highly improv- 
ed by inclosing them and ploughing them deep, go 
as completely to turn under the broom straw and 
letting them lie one year. By that period such fields 
will have improved sufficiently to produce a respec- 
table crop of corn, provided they have been strictly- 
inclosed and all stock prevented from treading the 
ground ; iu this case the ground will be preserved 
light and loose during the year it is inclosed and the 
broom sedge will become sufficiently rotted to bene- 
fit the corn crop. This fact is warranted by repeat- 
ed observation and experience. Perhaps it may be 
unnecessary to remark, that the longer such fields 
which are ploughed in this way are inclosed, and a 
crop kept off, the more rapidly they will improve. 

The cultivation of artificial grasses is also highly 
indispensable in this system of improvement. It is 
a maxim in agriculture, which is as true as any axiom 
in science, that land which is not under the plough 
and which is at rest, should be in grass. The ad- 



IMPROVEMENT OF LAND, 

' ntages of resting land under grass are numerous ; 
its loots hold the soil together and thereby effectu- 
ally prevent the land from washings it aifords to it 
shade in the summer and warmth in the winter, and 
is at the same time drawing supplies of manure from 
the atmosph* re through the vegetable process, to be 
given to the earth through the ageircy of the plough. 
The cultivation of grasses gives to the plough its 
greatest efficacy ; because the advantages of good 
ploughing towards improving thr : oil, depend in a 
great degree upon turning under a coat of vegetable 
mattei belo .rface, and thus protecting it a* 

tinst the effects of heat, moisture and air, tint: '. 
. ing principles afe caught and absorbed by the 
crop, instead of- being \?ed into the atmos- 

ph .mure is vegetable matter, and of course 

vegetables are manure. By cultivating grasses, we 
prepare a valuable auxiliary for the plough, fro r n 
■which it derives its ehief effect in fertilizing the 
earTu ; and thereby provide a copious supply of food 
or manure for other crops. 

Inclosing vastly accelerates the process for improv- 
es the soil, by increasing the quantity of vegetable 
matter or manure to be turned under by the plough* 
To practise it successfully, however, it must be com- 
bined with some resource equivalent to the loss of 
. the seamy pasturage, from which it excludes the 
emaciated cattle. Artifical grazing and hay m 
(\o\v9^ of high or lowland, is a resource, by which, 
Whilst nineteen acres are manuring themselves \\ 
out human toil, one may be made to produce more 
grass^than the whole twenty m w do ; and stocks oi 
ry kind may lie thus renders! infi 
ble, both for furnishing subsistence to man, a 
* ■ feftifeing the earth. 



/5S IMPROVEMENT OT LANl). 

It remains now only to point out the manner, r* 
which the proposed system of improvement, may be 
practised to the greatest advantage. Every iarm 
where there is a sufficiency of open land, should be 
laid off into lour divisions (reserving enough lor lots 
for hay and for grazing) and each division tu con- 
stitute a shift ; these shifts should be under one 
fence, cross fences being entirely exclude d, for the 
purpose of carrying effectually into operation the in- 
closing system. Each shift in succession should be 
-put in Indian corn 9 to be followed by wheat, and then 
to remain at rest inclosed an^f ungrazed lor two years 
and a half. According to this plan, one half oi the 
farm will be in grain, and the other half inclosed 
and at rest ; the ground reserved for the stbcfe should 
be laid off into lots and highly manured v. 
some cleaning crop, to be followed by Mnail grain^on 
•which gr'ass seed should be sown. To illustrate this 
plan, let us suppose a farm to consist of jive hundred 
acres of open or arable land, four hundred, of these 
acres will be divided lntoTour .shifts of one hundred 
acres each ; the remaining one hundred acres- should 
he divided into ten lots often acres each j one of 
these lots ought to be -highly .manured annually, and 
cultivated in pumkins, potatoes, peas, cotton, turnips, 
or any other cleaning crop, to be followed by wheat 
and grass seed, if these crops are gotten off in time to 
sow wheat, or by oats and grass seeds, ii they are 
not. Thus two o£ these ten lots will produce each 
year he«wy and valuable crops,.whilst the other eight 
arc in grass; three of these latter ought annually to 
be ct:t for hay, ffod the other five devoted to graz- 
the fi\c grazing l:<ts should be grazed in sue- 
m, both to alleviate the impoverishment it pvO- 
, and to increase the produce of grass. T!:e 
T' . n which the proposed .system is calculate/.!* 



IMPROVEMENT OF LA.VD, 

is no obstacle to its application to any other. Its 
proportions may be applied to a farm of any size. 

Under this system, the farm will undergo an an- 
nual and visible improvement, even if no manure be 
given to it, owing to the benefits of inclosing and to 
the rest of two and a half years, which allows time 
for a large produce of vegetable matter, devoted to 
the improvement of. the soil. 

But if manure be made with any degree of bIcjII 
and attention from the resn urces which the (ay 
yield, there will be a sufficient portion to (lev 
all the weakest parts of each shift as they s . 
b.vely come i ito cultivation, besides that givtfn to 
one of the lots. 

Those who have been in the habit of cultivating 
their farms under the three-shift svstem, and of hav- 
ing two thirds of their arable land in grain, m; 
ject to the 'four-shift and inclosing -system, as not af- 
fording a sufficient space for the employment <>f the 
whole labour on the farm a Although one half of 
the farm is Only in grain at a time, yet under the 
proposed system of improvement, it will soon pro- 
duce as much as two-thirds of the same land in its 
impoverished state, with the great advantage of di- 
minishing the space to be cultivated. And the sur- 
plus labour which was formerly emploved in killing 
land, may now be advantageously engaged in a more 
neat and superior cultivation. 

" By diminishing space, not only without dimin- 
ishing, but actually increasing poduce, the crops on 
the farm will be more manageable by the labor, and 
receive a better cultivation. And the time saved 
>. this diminution of space, is moreover profitably 
employed in the spring, in supplying manure and 
po-ving grass seeds : previous to wheat harvest; in 
making hay; in autumn, in ditching and draining, 
feti ■ iag and stubbing; and at all times in a variety 
ci less important, but improving occupations," 



"0 
MANURE;: 

No.vn. 

. j> 

©B due attention being paid to the makfng 
trtaseof s,. and to the mode oT preserving 

and naanngi-.g them, in a great measure, depends- 
.y of farms, -ancHhe luxuriance or 
goodness ai crops" thrit are grown upon them. It is 
therefore, an ohjec t,of-ihe greatest interest aud im- 
portance to the farmer, to collect and lay up mate- 
rials for making manure, £o see that nothing is wast- 
ed ^r thrown a\v:-y, that can possibly be converted 
to this valuable pu. pese. This is the great hinge-' 
upon which the whole system of agriculture turns- 
sis manures are, in tact, the soul and life- of agricul- 
ture* 

In ail parts of the world where agriculture is con- 
ducted upon the improved and rational plan of giv« 
ing to the" earth as much^or more, than is extracted 
from it by cropping, there is as great an emula- 
tion among farmers in procuring. or making ma- 
nure, as in m?king good crops ; and he that pays 
the greatest attention to manure is called the 
best farmer, as by it he is. always enabled to make 
the best crops. Let us attend to the. practice of. the 
farmers in England (where agriculture is conducted 
upon as improved a plan as in any part of the world) 
as relao d to us by an intelligent . American travelling 
through that country. 

" The good -land of England is. much more pro- 
ductive than that of America, and this .soperioi it; is 
probably derived, not so much from greater original 
strength of soil, as from in^ri skill agriculture, 
a- pending mainly on two great fa$t& y faithful tiliagi 
zvu faithful manw vw^ 



"The English. f^mer does not believe that there 
is any thing necessarily inherent in the nature of a 
good soil, which makes it productive, independent- 
ly of nutritious matter and foreign aliment returned 
to it by the cultivator, as a compensation for the 
crops it has yielded. Hence his firsi, his principal 
care is, to collect and form manure from ev>.ry pos- 
sible source. 

** Nothing is more common, when one is travel- 
ling in England, than to see in the roads adjacent to 
the fields, heaps of compost, consisting of turf, tops 
of vegetables, as of turnips and carrots, the stubbie 
from the wheat field*, which is cut up by a second 
leaping, after the crop has been removed j dead a- 
riimals, the offals of the barnyards and stables, and, 
in short, every thing which would otherwise be lost, 
and which is capable by putrefaction, of being con- 
verted into vegetable mould. 

41 It is, therefore, because this business of manur- 
ing is r so perfectly understood, and so diligently prac- 
tised in England, more than from any other cause, 
that their lands are so much richer than ours. In- 
deed, is it any thing more than an imitation of the 
economy of nature ? 

44 New countries, when first cleared of their forests 
-.re generally fertile, for the obvious reason, that the 
annual growth of vegetable substances ivas been for 
ages, deposited on the surface, and there left to pu- 
trify and forrri a soil. By imitating this natural pro- 
cess, the most barren spot may be rend red fertilt 
by counteracting it, that is, by removing cverv I 
in crops, and returning nothing in manure, the 
fertile spot may, in a few years, be perfectly impo- 
verished. Moreover, the rich mould thus formed, 
23 Cultivated, with the most luithful and skilful id- 

3* 



32 MANU?€S. 

lage. An English field, when it is ready to receive 
wheat, looks iike a garden. 1 he important result 
of this thorough manuring and thorough tillage, is 
the most abundant crops, and, what is not o be dis- 
regarded, the utmost neatness in the appearance of 
the country." 

A distinguished farmer of our own country, has 
observed, that 4i the agriculturalist who expects ?. to 
reap good crops from neglecting his manures, is 
equally a fanatic with the religionist, who expects 
heaven from neglecting his morals." 

Fertility of. soil is the great object to be attained, 
as without this, labor cannot be rendered effective, or 
good crops obtained j for of what avail is any rota- 
tion of crops^ the best contrived implements of hus- 
bandry, or the most perfect use of those implements, 
wherr abplied to a barren soil? Fertility; of soil is 
the -capital from which-all profits in agriculture n>ust 
be derived. Manuring only can recover this capi- 
tal, so much of which is already wasted by bad hus- 
bandry. 

It is the great object to be impressed, and all its 
mtfdes should be tried. But how are manures t->be 
obtained ? The only secret in the business of obta-in* 
ing them, is industry and attention ; and, when once 
obtained, that none of them be wasted. 

In procuring this needful substance, we are first 
to imitate nature, in collecting all the vegetable 
te* we can find, suffering nothing to be lost. The 
animal, the vegrtable and the minr.d kingdom must 
be ransacked for something to aid the growth of 
plants. The ashes of wood and of peat, the. muddy- 
depositions of ponds, creeks, f &c. the unrespirable 
portion of our'atmosphere, and some of the particles 
floating therein ; the various earthy productions, of 
a&u-i£) cu*^ plaster of Paris, clay and lime—the 



vt 



dung of most animals, and likewise the litter of grain 
crops, are found by experience, when properly em- 
ployed, to fertilize the earth ai mote the 
of vegetation, 



.NETRES, 

"... 

viii 

In this npmber I shall endeavor to point or. * 
best methods of managing manures while in the farm- 
yard, and also the state : n which they are best ap- 
plied to thesoih As a ^reat difference of opinion 
exists on these jieads, it is of importance to farmers, 
that the v should he settled according to the sound 
principles of science and experience. In treat 
this subject, I shall not only avail myself of my own 
experience, but also of the views and opfnioi 
some of the most intelligent agricultural writers on 
this subject. 

That certain vegetable and animal substances, in- 
troduced into the soil accelerate vegetation and in- 
crease the produce of crops, is a facf known since 
the earliest period of agrirulture ; but tbe manner 
.in which manures act, the best modes of applying 
them, their relative value and durability, are still 
objects of discussion. 

It is a Common practice amongst farmers, to suffer 
the farm-yard dung to ferment till the fibrous texture 
of the vegetable matter is entirely brjken down ; 
and till the manure becomes perfectly cold, and so 



84 MANURES. 

as to he easily cut with a spade. Independent 
of the general theoretical views unfavorable to this 
practice, founded upon the nature and composition of 
vegetable substances, there are many tacts and argu- 
rncnts which shew that it is prejudicial to the inter- 
est of the farmer. During the violent fermentation 
which is necessary for -reducing ■ far rn -yard- manure 
to the state in which it is said to be completely rct- 
ten, not only a large quantity of fluid, but likewise 
of r gaseous matter is h st ; so much so, that the dung 
is reduced one half or two thirds jn weight; and the 
matters which are thus lost by flying off into the air, 
"are valuable parts of the manure, for if retained by 
the.moisture inf the soil, they are capable of becom- 
ing an useful nourishment for plants. Besides the 
dissipation of gaseous matter when fermentation is 
pushed to the extreme, there is another disadvantage 
in the loss of rxeat, which if excited in the soil, is 
useful in promoting the germination of the seed, and 
in assisting the plant in the first stage of its growth, 
when it is most feeble, and liable to disease; and the 
fermentation of manure in the soil must be particu- 
larly fa\ orable to wheat crops, in preserving a genial 
temper? ture beneath the surface late in atuumn, and' 
during whiter. 

A s'giit incipient fermentation is, however, un- 
doubtedly of use in the dunghill ; for by; means of. 
it, a disposition is brought on in the woody fibre, to 
decay and dissolve, when it is carried to we land, or • 
ploughed into the soil ; and wc-dy fibre is always in 
great excess in the refuse of the farm. 

Too great a degree of fermentation is, however, 
verv prejudicial to the composite manure in the 
dunghill ; it is better that there should be no fer- 
iruntatinn at all before the manure is used, than that 
it shoul I be' ' arried too far. This must be obvious 
from what has been already said. 



MAN' 



JKrom the above statement, the utitity is disco. 
ed, of applying manures to the soil as spoil as ler- 
imentation begins, so that it may exert its full act: 
upon the crop, and lose none of its nut: »w- 

ers. And, in fermentation beneath the soil, the fluid 
matter producer is applied Instantly, ( \ n whilst it 
is wmii., to-ttie organs of the- plant, and consequent" 

- n ore likely to be t fitnen , than in manure that 
has g/ ne through the proces and f which all the 
principles fra*< ei 

pernicious effluvia disengaged in t e process oi pu- 
tiefactum, from animal and vegetable substances, 
seem to point nut the propriety of burying them in 
the soil, where they are fitted to become the food of 
vegetables. The fermentation and putrefaction of 
organized substances in the free atm< I tre 

noxious processes; beneath the surface of the ground 
they are salutary operations — In this case the food 
of plants is prepared where it can be used ; and that 
which would off nd the senses and injure th< health, 
if exposed, is converted by gradual : 

"is of beauty and ds< fulness ; the efmavia is n 
dered a constituent of the aroma of the flower, ai - 
what might be poison, becomes noui; . to ani- 

mals and to jnan. 

In cases when farm yard dung cannot oc imme- 
diate Iv applied to crops, the destructive fermentation 
of it should lie prevented as much as i Le : the 

are should be defended from the influence of the 
atmosphere ; a compact marl •. or a tenacious clay, 
offers the best protection against the a «re 

the dune- is cover' d over, or. as it wet j, sealed up v 
it -should be dried as much as possible.- 

Watering dunghills is s nv />mes recommj -mded for 
checking the progress of fermentation ; but thw prac- 
tice is inconsistent with just chemical vieNvs. It nr 
csclthc Jung for a. short time; but moistur a* 



36 KA NITRE S. 

principal agent in all processes of fermentation.-*- v 

Dry fibrous matter will never ferment. Water is > 
as necessary as air to the process ; and to supply it 
to fermenting dung, is to supply an agen. which will I 
hasten its decay. 

When dung is to be preserved for any time, the| 
situation in which it is kept is of im porta nee. Itl 
should, if possible, be defended from the sun. To* 
preserve it under sheds would be of great use ; or tol 
make the site of a dunghill on the north, side of a w ill. . 

Having treated of the manner in which manures -I 
are to be managed while in the farm-yard, and also* 
of the state in which they are to be applied to the"# 
soil, I come now to speak of the time and manner of 
applying them to the soil. 

AH the manure which is made on the farm during j 
winter, should be hauled out early in the spring, and'4 
applied to the soil for the production of fallow crops* 
particularly that of Indian corn. Every kind of ma-l 
nure ought to be carefully collected, duly sheltered";* 
and ploughed in as speedily as possible after it hasS| 
been carried to the- field ; the implements and labo-^ 
rers being ready on the spot. If this. is neglected, [, 
much Iqss is sustained by the quick evaporation which;* 
takes place. The besjEi£practke is* therefore, not to- 
carry out more from the yard at a time, than can be- 
conveniently spread upon, and ploughed into the 
earth in a short time afterwards. The .manure should' 
fre deposited in the fit Id' in heaps, in straight rows ; 
the size of the heaps, and their distance from each | 
other, will be regulated by the quality of the sod ; 
the dung should then be spread and immediately 
ploughed [in, line bv line, because it more re'adily 
dissolves in the ground when newly covered, and U^ 
yhole strength is thus secured to the soil. 



MANURES, 
Continued. 

No IX. 

For conducting the business of 
vantage, the former is to pursue objects whi 
tematically embrace such a regular pdu 
• culars, as shall best follow and dt pend on 
for obtaining the one whole of the design .mg, 

It is not i'.r.m diate produce atone th ii we aim. 
tor, whilst we 'wish to obtain rep i r 

.res us, that it is indispensably i. 
to that end v that the soil be ; i in full 

The iViiiicJ, Kh€p,»is emp 
(pbjetts oi. press . md imp. 

ductive powers oi the earth. 

Oust rvations on the state of common fo- ■•■ . 
the opinion, that no un 
tend to insure ;. ion ot a 

dry, for any -length of time. 

Well chosen rot.: . ■ dvie 

-culture, are believed to he^so fa v oral 

:.o need* but little Ofrai 
.the common, or ill chos< rt 
Still the steady and .attentive application 
is held to be an essential duty in i 
link of the chain in every ins If rich ■ 

r< quire, comparatively, but a moderate qu 
i rotation where ameliorating crops are pn 
yet middling and poor soi all treat can 

tained ; and under the present courses i 
especially, all soils e rnar.d more mar 

be readily procured'. Thes,e exausting ■ 

: see continually impoverii 



38 MA>V T 'Ev 

farmers, therefore, incline to move to fresh l&nfojf 
where tli-y would act the same murderous part over 
again. Farmers had, therefore, better learn betimes 
to improve their lands, or at least to keep them in 
good heart by a stead) attention to the making of 
m mures. 

The principal source for the production of the 

test cfttaatity of manure on farms, is the farm- 

i :. — If cattle were confined to these yards through- 

the winter and plentifully littered, they would 

: far mere manure than could even be imagined. 

But the manner in which cattle are at present 

d, they hardly make a load of manure. In , 
present practice, hay and fodder are stacked in 
helds, and the cattle arc fed round the stacks and 
Icier houses : t-he disadvantages whereof are, 
1- A wasteful use of the provender/ 
2c The dung lying as it is dropt without straw, 
or other vegetable substances brought to it, the ma- 
nure is little in quantity : and 

3. That little not king in heaps, is reduced abun- 
dantly by xhalation and rain, without leaving any 
thing to the soil. 

In the English and Flemish practice (feebly ob- . 
eci by a few of our husjy^clmen) cattle are care- 
housed; or otherwise con rued to a fold-yard, in 
which are shelters against cold rains during the 
v hole winter, and as far through the soring as food 
-will last : the advantages of which, are, 

i. A fair expenditure of the provender, without 
waste. 

2. Less exhaustion of the juices; because of the 
clili g lying together in large heaps. 

3. The~dun,g being mixed with the "straw, and 
other vegetable substance's brought to th beast as 
fitter, the whole is trod together* and forms a lar 

tity of very valuable manure. 



MANURES, Sftfi 

It may- be no exaggeration to affirm, that the dif- 
ference in the quantities of manures obtained from 
an equal stock of cattle by those several methods., 
may be as three to one. 

If six acres may be annually manured by the infe- 
rior method, then may eighteen by the superior.— 
Now, on a supposition, that manured land is kept 
in heart five years, without repeating, in the one case 
but thirty acres will always remain in good order % 
in the other, ninety acres ; a very important differ-, 
ence. Indeed, it is all the difference between an 
husbandman's poverty, and his riches. 

Litter is an essential to cattle, when let into yards,, 
without which yard manure is of small account ; and, 
unless it be in full proportion to the number of cat^ 
tie in the yard, it is not thought highly of; but is as 
a, half done thing. Good farmers in England deem 
full littering of cattle, when in yards, of such impor- 
tance, that, after reaping with sickles and inning their 
wheat, they cut the stubble and stack it for litter. — j 
Besides straw and stubble for litter, they apply to 
the same use, fern, and such other vegetable substan- 
ces as they can procure ; and they buy straw from 
common farmers who are not in the practice of lit- 
tering. In all countries,, common farmers are indif- 
ferent to improvements; they look not beyond old 
habits. A full littering is three loads of 12 or 
lbs. of straw to each grown beast. Indian corn stalks 
may be carried from the field in great quantities in* 
a skeleton frame cart (if not cut up and fed when 
fresh, when they are more nourishing, owing to the 
saccharine juice with which they abound.) A farm- 
yard should be so constructed as to prevent any thing 
i'rom passing away from it. This is done by making 
an excavation or hollow in the middle of the yard 5 so, 

4. 



40 SfANURES. 

that every part of the surface should descend to- 
wards the centre of it. Connected with the farm- 
yard and opening into it, should be shelters for the 
cattle, beeves, sheep, &c. These shelters should bo 
closed to the north, east and west points, and only 
open to the south, in order to secure the stock from 
the piercing winds and inclement storms of winter. 
These shelters should be covered with cornstalks or 
top fodder; the latter the best. — Having such shel- 
V ters, cattle will keep in better order with a great deal 
^.ess food, than they would without them ; neglect in 
providing such shelters, reflects severely on the eco- 
nomy and good management of our farmers, espe- 
cially when it is considered that nearly the same 
labor which is now consumed in packing away top 
fodder in the form of stacks, would, if differently- 
packed up, make good shelters for cattle, and at the 
jarne time secure this kind of fodder equally well. 

The stock should be confined during the whole of 
the winter in the farm-yard, and not turned out, as\ 
is frequently the case, to wander after the proven- 
der or miserable fog of the stalk fields, in which 
they empty themselves and scatter their dung; by 
which much manure is lost, great injury in many 
cases done to grass lands, and the stock, from being, 
exposed to cold and other causes, benefited in a far 
less degree than is commonly imagined. A hoof 
3hould not unnecessarily leave the yard. 

The farm-yard should always be well supplied 
with litter of some kind ; such as refuse straw, weeds, 
cornstalks, rich earth or leaves from the woods, or 
several of them together, in order to imbibe the 
soakings of the dung and urine dropped by the stock ; 
and of that thrown out of the stables. All kinds of 
refuse substances capable of being converted into 
manure, ought to be thrown into the yard. To effect 

ag purpose, every leisure opportunity should 



MANXES. 

taken to collect various vegetable matters, such as 
coarse grasses, leaves, straw, &c. in as large quanti- 
ties as possible, and the -whole should be carried to 
the yards, and stacked in convenient situations for 
the purpose of being made use of as litter. Besides 
these, there are other earthy -matters that equally de- 
mand attention — such as peat or boggy earth, mud 
from ponds and ditches, scrapings of roads, and other 
substances of the same kind, as can be conveniently 
obtained. Such materials as are necessary, being 
by these methods procured, the best mode of pro- 
ceeding seems to be, that of covering the whole of 
the farm-yard where the cattle stand and tread, as 
also the sheep-folds, &c with layers of these vegeta- 
ble and earthy matters, eight, ten, or more inches 
thick, according to the number of cattle and other 
circumstances ; the great object in view being to 
make as much manure as circumstances will possibly 
permit* 



"MANURES. 

Continued. 



Xo. X. 

"*The "most abundant sources for artificial manure 
in the most exhausted district of our country, are 
the otfal ot Indian corn, the straw of small grain, and 
the dung of animals. We find in the two first, proofs 
of the value of dry vegetables as a manure. It these 
few means- for fertilizing the country, were skilfully 
used, they would of themselves suffice to change its 
state from sterility to fr^Ufulness. But they are so 
egregiously neglected or mismanaged, that we hard- 
ly reap a tythe of their value. 

4 By the litter of Indian corn, and of small grain, 
and by penning cattle, managed with only an interior 
^degree of skill, in union with inclosing, I will ven- 
ture to affirm, that a farm may in ten years be made 
to double its produce, and in twenty to quadruple it. 
There is no other secret La the business than that 
none of these manures be wasted/ 

The farmers of our country have been in the ha- 
bit of cultivating Indian corn from year to year> 
without learning to avail themselves of half its va- 
luable properties. There is no other crop which 
yields so much food to man, beast, and the earth. — 
Its value to the two former wiii be acknowledged by 
all ; but as respects its value to the latter, farmers 
appear to be totally ignorant, if we are to judge from 
the manner in which this food is treated. There is 
mothing which, if properly managed, is calculated to 
yield better food or manure to the earth than the, 
stalks of Indian corn ; yet, notwithstanding their 
.great valu trials for making cr<anL're r ikrrru;s 



•MANURES. 4g 

*n general permit them to be entirely wasted. They 
remain in the field in which they grew, exposed to 
the vicissitudes of the weather, by which they become 
light and pithy, the most valuable pan being evapo- 
rated, and few are .turned under the soil to rot, to 
-become manure. Were the stalks of Indian corn an- 
nually saved, by being cut down and hauled in to 
litter the stables and farm-yard, they would make 
manure sufficient to manure many acres; and each 
acre thus manured, would make more corn than four 
acres of the same kind of land unmanured ; while the 
former would continue to, produce. the same superiori- 
ty of crops in proportion, for several years. If improv- 
ing land, or the making of good crops, is the wish and 
object of the farmer, he should certainly not act so 
much against his interest or in the way of his efforts 
as to permit his corn stalks to be -wasted. 

4 The stalks of corn should constitute the chief lit- 
ter and part of the food, both of the stable and farm- 
yard, during the winter. The sooner they are used 
after the corn is gathered, the more saccharum re- 
mains to bestow value on them as food, and the more 
.manure they will yield, as evaporation diminishes 
both ,* and this proceeds far more rapidly while stand- 
ing single in the field, subject to the vicissitudes of 
weather, than when immersed in the steady moisture 
and cold climate of the farm-yard.' 

It has been before stated that the farm -yard, to 
make a great quantity of manure, should be daily and 
plentifully littered with some kind of vegetable mat- 
ter capable of speedily undergoing the putrefactive 
process. Now there is rib kind of vegetable matter 
better calculated for this purpose than corn stalks.— 
They should be carried morning and evening in loads, 
into the farm pen and stable-yard, where becoming 

#4 



44 "af-is 

urated with the fertilizing qualities ihmrbe(jf*i 
the dung and urine of the stock, they will be in a 
* proper state to be hauled out early in the spring, and 
buried in the soil. If a considerable part of the farm- 
yard manure remains unrotted, when taken into the 
fields it is not to be regretted, only let the quantity 
he the greater, and have it immediately ploughed in, 
for I am clearly of opinion, that the putrefying fer- 
iiUntritioh can no where be carried on to so much 
advantage as in the soil, Indian corn should be the 
first crop put upon the ground after the farm-yard 
manure has been applied to it ; because Indian corn 
thrives better with unrotted manure, than any other 
crop, and is precisely the crop, and almost the soli- 
tary one, ready to associate with coarse litter, the 
- 1 growing weather which occurs after it is applied. 
1 The manure ought also to be devoted to Indian 
corn, because a crop of great value is thereby gain- 
ed whilst it is going through the process, supposed 
in England to be necessary to reduce it to vegetable 
food. Complete putrefaction is there considered as 
cessary for this end.. Whereas, by planting the 
Indian corn, as soon as the unrolled manure of 'the 
. m pen is carried out and ploughed in, its growth is 
nourished and finally perfected, by the time 
iction is completed. It catches the evapo- 
oroduccd by the moderate fermentation ol the 
tting vegetable matter of which" the manure is com- 
; L'.ncKcu ar.d exactly that portion of manure which 
is lost, by the custom of rotting it before it is used, 
becomes the parent of a great crop^ 13y the fall the 
cornstalks are sufficiently rotted in the soil to benefit 
•;. wheal crop to be immediately-sown thereon; and 
eS i n more of the manure is saved for this latter crop, 
i.g mingled in the earth, and subject to a mo- 
■ i.tion, than if it had been retained in 
(trough ike summer, exposed to a 



i i l!f 

;*fct effervescence, and then exclusively devoted to 
this crop upon a naked fallow.' 

A distinguished farmer of Virgina, the author of 
the Arator, observes in that book, that " the extent 
of surface now manured upon the same farm, by a 
more careful employment of the same resources, has 
so far exceeded his expectations, as to have trans- 
ferred his preference as means of improving the soil, 
from inclosing to manuring without however lessen- 
ing the value of the former in his opinion. A field 
of two hundred acres, aided by both, produced last 
year a crop of Indian corn averaging ten barrels an 
acre, and another of eighty, aided only by inclosing 
and Plaster of Paris, a crop of five barrels. The fir; t 
being nearly double, and the second, one third be- 
yond their respective products when hst in culture: 
Under a diminution of the stocks quoted, the sur 
face manured last year exceeded an hundred fores, 
and will this year extend to one hundred and thirty. 
■ It is contemplated to extend it, until it reaches 
annually a space sufficient for the whole Indian corn 
crop of the- farm." This distinguished farmer is 
enabled to manure this great 'quantity of ground : 
.principally by a careful saving and proper manage- 
ment of his corn-stalks. For he observes, that u th- 
regular increase of crops furnishes additional vege- 
table matter, consisting principally of corn-stalks ; 
the chief basis of this rapid improvement.'' In win- 
ter his farm-pens are littered daily and copious! v 
with these stalks. He does net consider it necessary 
that they should be trodden to pieces ; for, when 
rhe stalks are saturated with the moisture of the 
farm-pen, they have acquired all the fertilizing prin- 
ciples, they can hold in that state. They acquire 
• ;)one from being trodden. Their porous texture en- 
ables them speedily to absorb what they can contain. 
■Aft.r this is effected, i: is or.ly-Eecc^sarv to rwwsi 



m 

them into the field, and to bury them in the soil, to 
bring them into a putrescent state. 

As wheat straw constitutes a principal part of the 
litter with all farmers, it is of importance that the 
best mode of using it should be determined aright, 
There are three modes, 

1. Carrying it from the form-yard, after having 
passed through, or being trodden and enriched by 
vattle. In this mode, the whole of it should be used, 
as being the best, and agreeable to the principles 
herein recommended for the management of all kinds 
of litter to be converted into manure. 

The straw used in this way will constitute a ne- 
cessary part of the food alloted to the cattle. To 
derive the full advantage from it as used in this way, 
it ought to be hauled out early in the spring from the 
farm-yard, before the substance has been wasted by 
raiiu by the sun, and by the wind, and to be buried. 
in the earth as soon after as possible. 

2. Spreading the straw on the surface of the ground. 
Many respectable farmers are attached to this mode, 
as protecting -the soil from the sun ; and by keeping 
it moist, favoring the vegetation underneath, whether 
spontaneous or artificial ; whilst the straw itself is 
gradually decomposed into a manure. The objec- 
tion to this mode, is the l<5ss by evaporation, before 
this last effect is obtained. 

3. Turning the straw at once under the surface of 
the earth. This would seem to be the best mode of 
managing manures generally ; least of their substance 
being then wasted. When the grain is trodden out 
from the straw, it is left in a state easily admitting 
this operation. -But some difficulty may attend it, 
-when the grain is threshed from the-straw, by the 
flail, or by the machines now in use, neither of which 
break the straw sufficiently to : pieces. As the prin- 
.cinal part of manure used on every farm is made z^d 



MANURES. 47 

collected from the vegetable world, there is anothe r 
resource of which none is more excellent, so bound- 
less and as lasting, as that which is bountifully bes- 
towed by nature on almost every farm, in the leaves 
annually produced by our woods. On every farm 
there are portions of wood land which it is not in- 
tended ever to cut down ; from these a plentiful 
supply of valuable litter and manure in leaves and 
top soil is at all times ready for our stables, farm- 
pens, and exhausted fields ; nor is there any littering 
and manuring which would be more beneficial. This 
supply is so copious, the injury to the soil from 
r .whence it is taken so small, and less to the timber, 
that it seems surprising it has not long since oeen 
generally recommended and adopted « 



MANURES. 

Continued. 

No xr. 

Green brush, another species of vegetable manure, 
deserves not to be overlooked among the modes 
recommended for improving poor or exhausted 
farms. 

This kind of manure is happily to be found on 
every farm however poor, and exhausted fields that 
have been for some time thrown out of cultivation 
will invariably produce it in an abundance of pine 
-bushes, which may be advantageously employed in 
curing its galled spots and gullied declivities. ~ 
?x<here may -be. two modes of using brush ben^.cuniy. 



V ^3 UHJREfl* 

1st. Spreading it over the whole surface, fpi 
purpose of protecting the earth from the rays of the 
sun and enabling it to produce a coat of vegetation i 
if used in this way, it should remain undisturbed at 
least three or four years, as in this time a, great part 
of the brush will be rotted and thereby converted 
into an useful manure. 

2nd. Where the land is Ui -high ridges and deep 
furrows, the brush may be laid in the furrows mo- 
derately thick, and then cut and trod to make it 
lie close, that it may not be removed by the winds, 
There it remains undisturbed for three years or 
more ; by this tim^, the ridges as well as the furrows, 
will be highly improved by the brush, from the scat- 
tering powers of air and moisture. These ridges 
on the fourth year, are reversed to cover the brush, 
by this time in a putrescent state, and thus prepared 
to rot under ground. By this latter mode ol drilling 
the brush green and permitting it to lie uncovered 
for three y< j ars, then covered by the plough without 
disturbing it, and lying four years more until the 
ridges come in course to be reversed, it is made 
highly useful as a manure. All wood under two 
inches diameter may be used as brush in either of 
the above modes, and all over two inches in filling 
up gullies or for fuel. 

* The dung of animals during the summer season 
is an item of great moment for enriching lands, if it 
is saved without subtracting from the more valuable 
:tem of the -winter's farm-yards. The most benefi- 
cial mode of its application, is penning cattle and 
.-:heep, graduating the size of these pens by observa- 
tion, until the designed quantity of manure shall be 
deposited within two weeks at most, .and ploughing 
it in on the day the pen is removed invariably. The 
loss from evaporation during summer is so great, 
ihat a pen ought never to remain .above two weeks. 



masVres* 49 

By a regular course of removing these pens through- 
out a field, and immediately ploughing in the ma- 
nure, the farmer will be agreeably surprised to find, 
that the number of acres improved in this way will 
infinitely exceed his hopes; tor his ground will be 
equally enriched by far less dung, on account of these 
precautions against evaporation, and the cattle will s 
of course, go over a far greater space. 

' The land thus manured by the iOth of August, 
-nay be sown in turnips. After that period, the pen? 
which had stood from fourteen down to ten days (for 
the time should be diminished as- the cattle fatten) 
ihould be removed every seven days, because no draft 
will be made from the land by a turnip crop, the quan- 
tity of the manure is increased, the evaporation is di« 
minished by the length of the nights, and the cattle 
have improved in plight. Cattle and sheep managed 
♦ this way, will manure poor land sufficiently to 
produce fine crops of Indian corn and wheat, and a 
good crop of red clover after them, with the aid ot 
plaster." 

Every farm exhibits many poor exhausted knowls, 
where improvement has not progressed far, which 
are not only a great detriment to the appearance, 
but a material drawback upon the produce of such 
farms. 

Such spots are best managed by hauling and spread- 
ing upon them leaves and top soil from the woods, 
or wheat straw from the barn or gi anafy and penning* 
the farm cattle upon them every night for a certain 
period. 

The cover of the leaves or straw, with the trend- 
ing and dung of the cattle will have the most desira- 
ble effect on- such spots and will soon bring them 
into equal Heart with the best parts of the tarm. 

All the corn cobs on a farm should be carefully 
laved, and should be weekly scattered in the farm ct 



SO MANURES, 

stable-yard to preserve them from the- fire, where** 
they absorb a rich moisture to be bestowed upon the,. 
earth as they gradually decay ; thus constituting a 
valuable addition to the manure made in the farm- 
yard. 

When hogs are put up-to fatten, if the pen is made 
in a proper manner, they may be made to make a 
good deal of manure* and there is^none more valua- 
ble than that made by these animals. The hog-pen 
should be made without a floor and contiguous to a 
hog-house or shed where the hogs may be dry when- 
ever they please ; the pen consisting. of a dirt floor, 
should be made hollowing in the middle, so that all 
the dung, and other manures maybe carried by rains 
into the centre or hollow of it. All the corn cobs 
which are daily accumulated in the pen should be 
collected as often, and thrown into the hole or middle 
of the pen, in order to become saturated with ite- 
riches ; all *he chips which can be collected at the 
wood -yards should also be thrown into the pen, and 
also all other litter which may be conveniently come 
at.' If hogs are managed in this way when fatted for 
pork, thty will make more manure than exceeds the 
value of their food. 

Mud taken from the bed of creeks, from marshes 
and the earth from the bottom of ditches, have been 
made use of as manure with success. If these mat- 

3 are hauled out and spread upon poor land, they 
i i e found to improve it very much. If they are cart- 
ed into heaps and are exposed to the frosts during 
r, they become mellow and in many instances 
st© found nearly equal to farm-yard dung. But if 
triey are compost* d or carried in the fall into the hog- 
pens and farm yard, no manure in the spring can be 
better tor Indian corn, wheat, &x. 

By removing old or long standing fences, and-. 
gbing up their sites a. great deal of valuable ma- 



e may be obtalnecL This manure which will 
principally consist of fertile mould, may be collect* c^- 
in heaps after being ploughed up, and used when ne- 
cessary. No manure is so valuable as this for gar- 
dens, for wheat lots or for tobacco ; as it is free from 
producing grubs or worms, or subjecting plants to fire 
like dung, it being mild and at the same time ex- 
tremely fertilizing. 

Ashes leached and unleached have been extensive- 
ly used in Agricultural purposes, as a manure*, and 
few hare been found to succeed better. Ashes siK 
ceed best on dry, gravelly and loamy land ; they ; 
answer well on a cold or- clayey soil, by rendering 
them more warm and open. 

They are found to benefit nearly all kinds of crops ; 
hut most strikingly Indian corn, p-otatot:. nd. 

grass. /•■■■. 

A gill or one handful of onleached r.r rV< 
spread round each hid of corn after it is first he- 
h.».s a considerable effect upon it, making the corn 
far better, and is calculated as equal to a spoonful of. 

ister of Paris applied in the same way. Farmers 
have bee: 1 , in, the ha'. it of annually using u.i • 

:hed ashes as a manure, assert that upon a'nost 
ever) kind of land, one bushel of ashes. T*ili produce 
an additional bushel of corn. 

Ashes ans*ver extremely well when applied to high 
r*nd dry grass land. R;d and white clover are much 
fited ; the laru r as much so as from any o T her 
manure. Ashes are generally us d to most ar'van- 
*age for grain crops, by bring- s;>read over gu unci 
well littered and ploughed in. Ashes sp r, .«k ed ou 
land lately turned up trom sward, are decidedly the 
it productive manure that can be applied. Ten 

is of this manure, on p or land, will produce or-- 



52 MANURES. 

(Unarfy twenty five bushels of wheat; the land is 
'hen left in a state for yielding a crop of hay of be- 
tween two and one and an half tons per acre, which' 
A will continue to do for a great number of years. 

In short, no manure has been found as yet, to con- 
tinue so long in the ground as ashes. When ashes 
.are unleached, viz. when they have not been reduc- 
ed by. water (or by being drawn,) in richness, they 
are to be used as a manure more sparingly; and 
•^hen they have, more copiously. 



MANURES; 

Continued. 

No. XIL 

Plaster of Paris is a valuable manure, and perhapg- 
has been attended with better effects in those parts 
>f our country where it has been extensively used r 
than any other manure. N°o other manure is so 
:heap and valuable for speedily improving exhaust- 
ed lands, when used in combination with red Clover, 
as it gives to the latter an almost boundless fertiliz- 
ing power* As soon as poor lands can be made to 
bring red clover, their fertility may soon be effected 
by the use of this manure. One or two bushels of 
plaster spread or scattered over an acre of clover 
growing on the poorest land, will make it so luxuri- 
ant as to fa!l on the ground, or if cut to yield one or 
two tons of good hay. 

It is also beneficially used by rolling it with In- 
dian corn seed, bushel for bushel, as it has a good 
effect on the crop. When spread over the coarse* 



MANURES. 

litter of an enclosed field or over farm yard manure 
immediately previous to ploughing them in, it has b 
*good eiFect ; as it makes these manures more effica- 
cious and disposes them an ore speedily to rot. 

Marie affords an excellent manure lor sandy, dry, 
.gravelly or light lands of any kind ; it likewise pro- 
duces very beneficial effects on mossey and clayey 
soils ; provided a due proportion be applied, and af- 
terwards perfectly dissolved. In fact, it is a species 
of manure suited to almost eveiy soil and climate* 
.Farmers should always be in search for it on their 
farms. To our state it would prove more valuable 
than the mir.es of .Potosi. It is mostly found in low 
ilat lands near the margin of ponds, lakes, and ri\ 
and at the bottom of low bugs. It usually will be 
found near the surface of the earth, or within 12 or 
18 inches depth. There are three kinds or species 
-of" marie. 1st. Calcareous or shell marie. This is 
generally of a yellowish white, or yellowish grey co- 
lour, but in some places of a brown or red cast. — 
This species of marie is mostly of a loose texture ; 
it effervesces with acids ; when pulverized, it feels 
dry between the fingers ; and, it immersed in Water, 
it readily crumbles to pieces, but does not form a 
viscid mass- 2. Argillaceous or clayey marie, is of 
a grey, brown, or reddish brown color ; being har- 
der, and more unctuous, than the former species, and 
adheres to the tongue. It effervesces with aqua for- 
tis, or spirit of salt ; in water it dissolves more slow- 
ly than the former. 3. Sileceous, stonv or sandy 
marie. This species contains a greater proportion 
of sand, than of chalk or clay. It is of a brownish 
.grey or lead color; it is, in general, friable and fla r 
Jcey, but sometimes forms very hard lumps. It effer- 
vesces with acids, but neither dissolves in water, nor 
moulders so speedily as \i:'h?? tif the two for.r*sr 
•feds, 



The first and third, viz. the shell arid s*to 
se which abound -most in calcareous earth, and 

ve the most sand hi their composition ; they are, 
therefore, bestadaptcd to strong, stiff cla\ey soils. 

The'getc rz. the c&yey marie, or those m 

which clay is cdnsidbraWy pn dominant, are found 
nu re adv; i in the light, dry, sandy, gravelly 

uud loamy soils. 

A good artificial *marle may be prepared by mix- 
s of pure clay at . in after- 

. its, so .. ex* 

•~j escd to the winter nests, 'lb\* Compound is \ 
ted lor light lards. 

Lime is used as a manure, in its mild as well as 
caustic state j it should, however, never be made use 
of without duly attending to the nature and constitu* 
lion of the soil to which it is to he applied, as on 
this oil .ce its success will, in a great mea- 

sure, depend. In its caustic state, it acts as a de- 
composing agent on animal and vegetable matter* 
and is especially recommended where soils possess 
jcme dormant principle of fertility. Mild, or slack- 
ed lime, is recommended to improve the texture of 
.soils that are deficient in loose or sandy matter; it 
vv j 1 1 also produce good effects, where, in such soils, 

phuric, or other acids exist, that are prejudicial to 
vegetation, by the power which it possesses oi neu- 
tralizing thtm. 

Lime, applied in its hot or caustic state to land, 
tends to bring any hard vegetable matter that it con- 
tains into a state of more rapid decomposition j 
solution, so as to render it a proper food for plants. 
To all foils, th refore, that are stored with any quan- 
tity of inert vegetable matter, with roots or any kind 
* of coarse litter, caustic lime is applied with e\ 
ad\antage- 



MANURES. *#$ 

v All cour, cold, stiff or clayey soils i' also be e- 
fits i:i the highest degree ; as it renders them more 
warm, lively and open, and destroys or neutralizes 
all piinciples contained in them noxious to vegeta» 
tion. 

In the Slate of Pennsylvania, lime is extensively 
used as a manure, and with the utmost success. — 
No farmer there does without it, ii it can possuly 
be procured. 

Lime is generally used there in its hot or caustic 
state ; and so careful are they to preserve it in this 
state that as soon as the lime-stone- is burnt, the lime 
is heaped and covered ; lest by being exposed to the 
influence of the atmosphere, to successive frosts and 
thaws, rains and snows, it should become as mild as 
calcareous lime, and therefore lose all its more active 
and beneficial properties, la Pennsylvania, the far- 
mers know that poor land will not bear so much lime 
as rich land. From this they conclude that lime must 
act as a stimulant, and that the. quantity applied to 
the land ought to bear an exact proportion to the 
quantity of vegetable matter contained in the soil. 

From - : to 35, and sometimes from 40 to 50 bush- 
els, are applied to an acre ; it is frequently plough- 
ed into the soil in the fall when the ground is fallow- 
ed up ; or it lays, in heaps in the field till spring and 
then plough' d or harrowed in. 

« Indian corn i-s the first crop that is put on the soil 
after it has been limed, as it is a gigantic plant and 
able to imbibe the supplies of food that -will be given, 
or is able to stand the operations of the lime on the 
soil. Or oats and clover may be sown as the first 
crop after the land is limed ; the cl ve;-*, m this caac, 
at a year old, will be luxuriant. One of the most 
-beneficial effects of the lime on the land, consists in 

- *-> 



Be sf£str*t£s. 

rendering the red clover crops extremely luxu: 
which are sown afterwards. 

Spreading lime on a clover lay, and suffering it to 
remain on the surface, through winter, and then 
ploughed; and the lime being well incorporated by 
heavy drags ©r harrows, is found -a very advanta- 
geous mode* -Laying on the lime, and mixing it 
thoroughly with the soil by frequent stirrings, with- 
out dung, is generally preferred. It has-been repeat- 
edly observed, that fn-sh lime and stable manure, 
put on together, are by no -means so efficacious, a* 
when the latter is applied in the -season succeeding 
the liming: Dry vegetable matter ploughed into the 
soil with fresh lime does better. When land is over 
limed, the remedy is to give the land a good dress- 
ing of farm-yard manure, or any kind of vegetable 
matter; such as buckwheat or oats turned under, in 
order to afford something for the lime to act upon ; 
or to let it lie a year or two till the heat of the lime 
•:s partly-given out, and then it will have its effect 



ENCLOSING. 



No. XITI. 



Xtmd is inclosed for the purpose of rearing v 
'tables to benefit it by their shade, and by extracting 
manure from the atmosphere to be given to it when 
elaborated into a form sufficiently permanent to en- 
rich it. 

. Why are woodlands richer and more productive 
than worn or exhausted lands ? The trees growing 
on them continually shade the ground, and give to 
the land an annual dressing of manure in leaves, 
rotten limbs and trunks, and plants which are spread 
abroad by the winds and rot on its surface. This 
dressing of manure which the surface of the earth is 
annually receiving, forms so many additional layers 
of vegetable mould i and its fertility, instead of be- 
ing diminished by the growth of the trees, is con- 
stantly augmented by them, they being the agents by 
which its fertility is effected; hence woodland, or fresh 
cleared land, is much more rich and productive than 
soils whose surface is kept naked, and whose ferti- 
lity is constantly extracted by the crops cultivated 
thereon? without being restored again. In inclosing 
lands to be improved, we imitate the process by which 
nature improves them. Lands that are,inclosed, and 
from which grazing is"' entirely excluded, however 
poor, will throw up a coat of vegetables which shade 
the ground during summer, in fiuiumn they fall and 
rot, by which its surface is improved. The next 
year vegetation becomes more luxuriant, in conse- 
quence of the accession of fertility gained by the last 
year's coat of manure* -Thus exhausted fields are 
annual!'/ enriched by an annual dressing of manure. in 



•*fFb I-NtL&BJtfG. 

' weeds, grass- or clover &c.*""\T*hfkh fall and rot on tn 
• k surface. 

Inclosed fields will also throw up a growth of 

* bushes, which may be used advantageously in filling 
up gallic s and in curing galled places. In this way 
it has been found from experience, that exhausted 

*■ fields which are inclosed, and from which grazing is 

• excluded, annually and rapidly improve. For the 
purpose of adopting the inclosing system to the 
greatest advantage, every farm should be divided into 
four shifts ; one of which is only to be cultivated at 
a time, while the others remain at rest, inclosed and 
ungrazed. 

The best course of crops to be pursued under the 

- inclosing system, is Indian corn — wheat sown in the 
fall on the same gr-uud with the corn — the next 
spring red clover sown among the wheat, and after 

; ine latter is removed, the clover to remain uncut and 
ungrazed for two years. Red clover is cultivated 
by those who wish speedily to improve their ia<.ds 

-under the inciqsing system: as it extracts and bes- 

1 tows upon the earth in a less time, a greater quan- 
tity of atmospherical manure than any other vegeta- 
ble ; and its peculiar propensity to be improved by 
a top dressing of the plaster,, gives it an additional 

% value. 

The inclosing svetern, to succeed well, must be 
combined with a great number of agricultural prac- 

' tiees, at enmity with those which at present pr< vail. 
It is at enmity with the ptacUce of summer ial- 

- lowing for wheat- 

It is at enmity with the practice of shallow plough- 
ing, and accords with that of deep ploughing. 

It accords -with the doctrine of turning in a clover 
lay, or a bed of any other vegetable matter, for a 
crop speedily sown or planted thereon, without, die- 
■ turbing this new bed of vegetables, 



nsrtrtosjTNG. 

\ also accords with the practice of ploughing in 
vegetables in a hard or dry state, instead of a green 
or succulent etate. 

It is also at enmity with the custom of exposing 
a fiat surface to the sun, and accords Vith tl 
tice of cultivating and preserving land in high ridge's 
and deep furrows. 

Among the several modes of improving land here- 
after to be treated of, incloVrag deserves to he ranked 
as one t-f the most valuable. It works r>i 

. suuitlv, Qall an expense oi labor, 

proprris - used, it insures an annual improvement* — 
TV'e iiave only to inclose our exhausted (kids 
exclude grazing, to prepare to fertilize their sur- 
faces bj successive drafts of -tiiltnure to he drawfl 
from its' inexhaustible treasury, the atmosplKP-.— 
4 i he earth swims in atmosphere, and inhi 
refreshments. Vrgi tables cover the earth, and are 
the visible agents to which its surface is indebted for 
fertility. It the vast ocean of atmosphere is tht 
treasury of "vegetable food, vegetable manure is ol 
ously inexhaustible. Vegetables take tin ir sts 
Upon the earth to extract the richts of the att 
phere, larger than the earth itself, and to elaborate 
them into a proper form for fcftitifriftg its -surface.' 

The advantages of the inclosing .system may b- 
happily illustrated by, the following experiment*. 

4 A "slip of a willow was planted in ft box containing 
'2C0 pounds of earth : in a few years the willow grew 
so rapidly as to exhibit a' tree of 200 pounds 
without having diminished the earth in which it 
grew. Had tbis willow been cut up and used as a 
manure, how vastly v. >uld it have enri- 
weight of earth it grew on. Tbis fast shews that 
the 2C0,pqunds -weight of willow was eirtirel) 
from the atmosphere : and further sb 
■<he une of vegetables, we -mav <- 



60 INCLOSING. 

the atmosphere with a rapidity, and in an abundance 
"far exceeding that of which we have robbed the earth. 
This 200 pounds weight of willow, was a prodigious 
donation of manure, by the atmosphere, to the 200 
pounds weight of earth in which it grew. It was eo 
"much atmosphere condensed by the vegetable process, 
into a form capable of being received and held by 
the earth, and of being reduced to manure by putre- 
faction.* 

But the inclosing system may be objected to by 
some, who may say, " if we inclose our lands and ex- 
clude grazing and cultivate but one-fourth part of our 
farm at a time, what shall we do with our stock and 
with that part of our k\bor which is usually employed 
in cultivating a greater space of land ?" These two 
questions may be anwered in one. The surplus labor 
arising from the inclosing system, may be employed 
in preparing pasturage for the stock, by draining and 
cleaning up all marshes >and swamps, also all other 
low or wet places, and converting them into mea- 
dow and grass. Arid-some part oi the-highland may 
also be devoted exclusively to grazing, by preparing 
a well turf< d standing pasture. 

The great object is to exclude the tooth and the 
hoof from the inclosed fields, to accelerate their im- 
provement under this system; and, in proportion as 
the land improves, so will the stock increase; for the 
increase of stock depends as intimately upon the im- 
provement of land, as the increase of crops. There- 
fore, as the land improves under the inclosing • 

tH, so will the crops increase; and, as the crops 
increase, so must the stock, the'te being an increased 
quantity of food, to be consumed, an -J of vegetable 
er to be made into manure. 

The surplus labor which has heretofore been, em- 
ployed in killing land, may he more profitably em- 
ployed in cimrvatirtj> less lantt, and i illy, fa 



INCLOSING. 61 

cteingr more justice to it ; and in making more abun- 
dant crops, by bestowing upon it more faithful til- 
lage and more faithful manuring. The great mis- 
fortune with our farmers is,, they cultivate too much 
land.— The consequence is, wretched husbandry and 
half crops. One of the great advantages of the in- 
closing four-shift system, over that of the three shift 
system, (viz. corn — wheat — pasture) is the profit of 
making greater crops from less land. The same 
crop from a fourth may produce profit, and yet, a 
loss from a third. 'If 120 acres of poor land pro- 
duce 120 barrels of corn, and the expenses of culti- 
vation amount to a- barrel an acre, there is no profit, 
';nt if 90 acres of the same land are improved by in- 
closing, so as to produce 120 barrels, there w r iil be a 
profit of 30 barrels. 

* There are still many other objects for the em- 
ploy m en t of the surplus labor, which mast he com- 
bined with the lour shift and inclosing system, to ac- 
celerate and augment the rewards it v. ill bestow. — . 
Hay in abundance must he made, crops will increase, 
modes of tillage must be improved, transportation 
v.-iii increase with litter, the making of manure, and 
plaster, if resorted to, is by no means niggardly in 
providing employment for labor.' 

In treating of inclosing, I' am fiNy aware that I 
have not done the subjt ct that justice which its im- 
portance as a system of improving land demands. — 
Hut I hope I have said enough to put the mind of 
the* intelligent reader on the track to pursue the sub- 
ject further — and if he is disposed so to do, he is 
referred to Taylor's Arator, in which work the sub- 
ject is treated at large, and with an ability proporti- 
onate to its important- 



i 

TRENCH PLOUGHING 

No. XIV. 

A* ploughing 19 one of the most important opera- 
tions in agriculture, every mode of it should be re- 
commended and tried, which promises an improve- 
ment either in a saving of labor, in making more a- 
bundant crops, or in the amelioration of the soil. 

I shall, therefore, in this and some oi the follow- 
ing numbers, mention some of the best modes of 
ploughing land^and then urge some reasons, showing. 
the necessity and utility of deep ploughing. 

In Pennsylvania, where agriculture is in a high 
state of improvement, there is a mode of ploughing 
h is highly recommended by those to whom it. 
is known to be practicable and easily performed. It 
is called Trench Ploughing, an.'V the mode of it is-, 
:;ow given as described in the Memoirs of the Phi- 
ladelphia Agricultural Soc: . . 

1. Provide a li ht | from 12 to 15 inches- 

wide in the hind part of the span or sole, calculated 
to p^.re off foe so<j from 2 to 3 inches deep, accord- 
■ ig to the depth of the rvots of wetds. 

~. A strong heavy Trench plough, capable of turn- 
depth- from 3 to 10 inches of mould, or earth. 
•nust b s one or two inches narrower than the 
paring plough, or it will c it into-tiie unpared sod. 
first is to be drawn by a pair of horses or 
The second by two pair of oxen or strength 
. quiyalentv 

rench must be first made, with the trench plougbr 
able. The paring- plough must 
Awn pare ! IT the next intei oW, and 

trench plough follows 



TRENCH I'LGtJGU ItfG* §? 

over a body of earth so as to bury all weeds, which 
are placed too deep for vegetation, and thus, by rot- 
ting, become manure. 

The mould board of the trench plough, should 
have a thin plate of flexible iron screwed on its up- 
per edge, vertically, so as to extend the surface and 
accommodate itself to the curvature of the mould 
board. With this auxiliary, the loose earth raised 
by the mould board will be thrown completely into 
the trench. It is otherwise liable to run over, and 
choak the plough. Both ploughs, (the latter the 
most) require clevasscs with notches and curvated 
regulators, to direct and fix both their depth and la* 
<eral course. .Trench ploughing should be perform- 
ed in the autumn, and the fv lc: lie through the win- 
ter, to attract from the air, whatever is the food of 
plants; and to receive the benefits ol fp quent frosts 
and thaws. The subsequent ploughing need be no 
deeper than usual in good tillag . A fallow crop 
only should succeed tnc Irenching the first year J and 
Indian corn may be bdst adapted, as it admits ;-nd 
requires frequent stirring and exposure of the soil. 

Judge Peters, a distinguished agriculturalist of 
Pennsylvania, is a gn at advocate for this mode of 
ploughing ; who thus remarks on it: M It is only to 
worn or infested fields that I ever recommend this 
mode of ploughing. The burying the old soil, ex- 
hausted of every fertilizing quamv, filled with the 
seeds of pestiferous weeds, ami indestructible stocks 
and roots ; with the bulbs and seeds of garl c, St. 
John's wort and the daisy ; and other su- h otherwise 
unconquerable hosts of foes to mv culture of profita- 
ble crops, was my motive for trench ploughing pro- 
gressively, at least fifty acres cf my farm. Many 
years ago I gave au account of ray process, and its 

6 



0& ' TRENCH ^LOU'GHIKS* 

-*esults in this mode of ploughing. It was oat the- 
ory, but the actual product of repeated and successful 
practice. I brought my fields into a fertility and 
cleanness of crop, which amply rewarded me; and 
surprised those who had known. those parts of my 
farm in their apparently hopeless state of exhaustion* 
So that I have not a trenched field, which is not now 
the better for the operation. A pair of oxen, and 
/our horses, were generally all I had, for a large farm* 
With these I could trench and faU plough, as much 
as I required. It is certain that all soils are not pro- 
per for this operation ; though more are so, than is 
generally supposed. Some have told me that it ,:id 
harm on such soils as mirre, which is general!) a 
light loam ; yet, I conceive, such soils are the best, 
fqr this process." This is certainly a good mode of 
ploughing on fields ivorn, as it is peculiarly well cal- 
culated to destroy any kind of pestiferous weeds with 
which they may be infested ; for any person who at- 
tends to the mode above described, will perceive, that 
the sod of the old surface is entirely covered, by the 
accession of the substratum thrown over it. Where- 
as the edges of the sods, in ploughing ever so deep 
in any other way, are always exposed to vegetate 
anew. The seeds, bulbs or roots of pestiferous weeds, 
by means of the mode recommended, being deposit- 
ed in a deep trench, with a deep cover of earth over 
them, which they are unable to penetrate by vegeta- 
tion, — rot, and become an accession of manure to the 
soil. Judge Peters further observes, that many of 
his fields which had been brought into cleanness of 
cultivation, by this mode of ploughing, soon regain- 
ed their cover of weeds and nuisances, when this ope- 
ration was neglected, by those who had rented them-. 
There is another mode of ploughing land in use 
in Pennsylvania, the advantages of which are highH: 
spoken of. It is as follows. 



T&ENCH PLOUGHING. 65 

In the first place, coult r the ground with a cool- 
ter plough drawn by two horses, about eight or ten 
inches deep, the cuts being about one foot apart; 
then plough the land in an opposite direction, w:th a 
commorf bur-share plough with two horses to about 
the same depth, and let a man follow in the farrow 
with a narrow spade plouga three inches broad, and 
drawn by one horse, to break the understratum four 
or six inch-.-, deep. Thus the surface is : 
or ten inch . d ep, ;■....• the ground effectually ly 
ened from tv\ *ve to sixteen inches deep This prac^ 
lice ma\ . fed on any Boil, Ijpwever dry, har . 

or sward bound, provided it is net too siony er 
stumpy. 

An implement called a miner, is frequently used 
in Europe, with the same view as the coult' r plough 
described above, viz. opening ground to a great 
depth :■ It is made very strong, bill wivh one snare 
only, not having any mould board; it therefore ra- 
ther loosens than turnt-up the earth. In d rep stiff 
soils, where the surface mould is good, it may be 
conveniently employed in the sam,' iurr nv after a 
common plough, in order to f.tir the ground to a 
greater depth. It is an extremely useful implement 
where working deep is necessarv, without bringii g up 
the inert understratum or sub-soil, as in loosening 
the ground for carrots, or other tap-rooted plants, - 
and in eradicating the roots of thistles, or other weedV 
} hiih strike deep in the earth,. 



:ep ploughs 

No XV. 

Peihapa there is no subject in Agriculture on v, 
pinion,' or against v 
, t, than deep ploughfn 

ti.js j utmost importance, :. 

G . .sicler it Ihe basis of agrici 

and that whtn combine^ with horizontal plougl 



1 1 v 



J 



is to prove the salvation of our hilly lands, I beg the 
particular attention and strict impartiality of the rea- 
der, whilst I lay before him some iacts and arguments 
in favor of Deep Ploughing. 

In treating of this subject, the nature of our cli- 
mate and its effects on the soil, will first be consi- 
dered ; the'n it will be endeavored to shew the great- 
er advantages of deep, over shallow ploughing ; and 
that these advantages consist in the preservation of 
the soil cr its prevention front washing, closer plant- 
ing, greater abundance of crops, and a saving of laBori 

1st. Our climate in winter, with respect to heat 
end cold, is various; the frosts are generally severe, 
and the ground is usually frozen for one or two 
months ; and a considerable quantity of moisture 

falls in the different forms of snow, hail and rait 

In summer, thundergusts, with intervals, of hot dry 
weather, are aiso common. Let us now consider 
some cf the most visible effects of the climate on the 
fends in tillage. 

ITie winter frosts are no doubt useful, in dividing 
and ameliorating the soil ; repairing, in some degree, 
the injury it sustained the preceding summer. Dur- 
ing summer, a great proportion of the rains falling 
hastily* the *onstq>uence i^that wherever the ground 



DEEP PLOUGHING. 

rsnot opened to a sufficient dtpth to imbibe the 
whole before the' sin lace becomes saturated, or has 
time to penetrate the fvard stratum beneath, a part oi 
the soil becomes fluid, and if the surface is 
dead level, a portion of it is carried off. in Greal- 
Britain, one of the first agricultural countries ot Eu* 
rope, they are not subject either to the excessive 
heavy rains, or hot dry weather, that we are; abso- 
lutely requiring with us, a greater depth of cultiva- 
tion to counteract thu bad effects of the climate on 
the soil; and yet their ploughing is vastly deeper 
than ours. The fact is, in our dry and hot climate ; 
deep ploughing is rendered indi^pt nsable r not oily 
to prevent the land from washing, but for the preser- 
vation of the meisiure, and the inhalation of the at- 
mosphere, so necessary to guard our crops against 
the effects of di oughts, common in our clim.it. . 

2. It prevents washing. Deep and horizt 
ploughing when combined, are found effectually tc 
prevent washing in hilly lands» This is testified by 
the practice of many intelligent farmers in the state 
of Virginia,* where this kind of ploughing is conning 
into ^enera'i Use. But horizontal ploughing, however 
skilfully clone, unhss accompanied with deep pU 
ing, will avail nothing on nil \ lands, 

JL.et us now considti sort . rT cts of sl.</.. '> T v 

ploughing. When lands are cleared, washing is pre- 
vented for the first year, by the undecayi d -fibrous 
roots remaining in the soil ; it generally brgi.,s the 
second, and continues annually, 1 he plough* g be- 
ing only about four inches deep, does not afi rd a 
sufficient quantity of loose efrrth to imbibe the whole 
of the heavy showers that frequently fall d«.«:-in.g 
Lommer^ the consequence of whiih is, as before ok 

-■*'i'h\s ytill be shewn in a future number, 
*6 



68 TftEV PLOUGKl^C; 

served, that when the open so:l becomes satur;, 
water must accumulate on the surface, and flowing, 
©ff in torrents, bears away a portion of the finest and 
most valuable part of the soil ; succeeding plough- 
ing bring to the surface a fresh supply of mould, 
which in turn) follows the last. Thus, ploughing and 
washing alternately, following each other, the effects 
are, that the soil employed in cultivation must an- 
nually become less fertile, because the coarse, the 
heavy, and adhesive particles of earth,. remain on the 
land from the beginning, while the finer and more- 
friendly parts are continually carried away, and thus 
the land becomes sterile, not so much from the vege- 
table nutriment being extracted from the soil by the 
growth of plants, as by the soil itself being removed 
by washing. That this is a necessary consequence 
of shallow ploughing on lands that are in any degree 
hilly, in this climate, I trust is evident to every un- 
prejudiced mind. What further proofs need we, to 
convince us of the effects of shallow ploughing, than 
the deserted old fields, washed into gullies, that ire- 
quentlv present their sterile surfaces from Susque- 
hanna to Georgia Some years ago, I was ot opinion 
that this speedy reduction of sod was altogether oc- 
casioned by tfee nature or the crops cultivated inert on j 
but on attending more accurately to the subject, I am 
now convinced that it is more Irom tire manner of 
cultivation, than the exhausting pri tperties ot the 
crops. As a proof, it has been observ* :1, that when 
an indnsuious person from another state or country, 
whVre the cultivation is deeper, has- settled on these 
exhausted lands, that they improve, although the 
same crops, or l&dse eqni-iiy exhausting, are culti- 
vated, and that in some instances they are made ver^ 
ve without manure, 
S. It admits o l efoser planting. AVhat is the Ian- 
:■; ci our farmers and planners with respect tc 



D&2TP PtOUCTHINtf. 69 

ploughing ? " Our soil is not more than two- or three 
inches deep, we must plough shallow, otherwise we 
shall turn up too great a portion of dead earth, and 
ruin our crops." Tney say also we must plant wide, 
otherwise a drought will cause our corn to fire; and 
for these supposed weighty reasons, those two prac- 
tices are almost universally adopted, to wit, shallow 
ploughing and wide planting. Here our men of ex- 
perience prove, they are acquainted with the effect, 
without knowing, or even enquiring into the cause, 
Their mistaken opinion respecting dead earth, will 
be noticed in due place; hut it remains here to be 
proved, that the necessity of wide planting is one of 
tile consequences attached to shallow ploughing. All 
plants imbibe moisture from the earth, by their roots ; 
if this portion of their sustenance is withheld, though 
every other species of vegetable nutriment abounds ir; 
the soil, the plant becomes sickly, growth ceases, and 
Anally death ensues. In search of the necessary sup- 
ply, tne roots of plants are extended m all directions, 
where the soil is open enough to admit them, and to 
a disiance pioportionate to the demand ; two j 
©f the same kind, require a greater quantity to pre- 
serve health, than one : hence it wnl appear, that a 
drought of sufficient duration to extract most of the 
moisture contained in that part of the soil loose ■.< d 
by the plough, may yet leave sufficient to preserve 
one plant in health ; but ii divided, both must .suffer, 
for neither can penetrate the hard unstiired earth be- 
low, for a supply. But in case of long droughts, no 
distance whaUV' r Will insure Indian turn from .suf- 
fering, when the under sira'uni is hard and the 
ploughing shallow; an ■: under these circumstances^ 
few summers are so wet, but that close planted u >n 3 . 
at seme period of its growth, discovers the want of 
a full supply of moisture, which -perhaps aught be 



R) Mep plougkt • 

amply afforded by one oriwo inches greater depth 
oi ploughing* 

VVhy is it, that fresh cleared land will admit of 
closer plaining, and is more productive the second, 
than the first year ? The surface having been for some 
time cleared of leaves, rubbish, &tc. and exposed to 
tt.t action oi frost, sun and dews; -ti.at portion of 
tanh, lying originally immediately bolow the bla k 
nd called d. ad earth, which v/as turned up 
by i ■ ultiva'tipn of the preceding y< ar (for in com- 
m< ti soils, i! is almost impossible to plough so shal- 
low as to --void turning lip some, in new grounds) 
has now acquired a dark color, and therefore not 
known to be the same ; and some of the obstacle* 
to ploughing being removed, the-y almost u 
go an inch or two deeper, without ^shewing any 
greater appearance of the yellow or dead earth, so 
much dreaded, than the preceding year : this fur- 
nishes a more extensive pasture for the roots of the 
plants growing therein, and also becomes a more co- 
pious reservoir for treasuring up moisture for the 
needful time ; and consequently affords a supply for 
a greater Dumber of plants, and constqucntly for a 
more productive crop. In deep ploughed soils, the 
number of plants growing therein, is not estimated so 
much from the extent of surface as from the quantity 
of soil employed, as before hinted ; for instance, if 
one plant requires a yard square of soil, of three and 
a- half inches depth, the saute surface will be much 
more certain to bring to perfection t-wo plants, when 
worked seven inches deep ; experience having prov- 
ed, that in rich deep soils, corn Will admit of b-ing 
planted four timers closer than usual, without suffer- 
ing in a drought or for want of air. Who has not 
thought of the pleasing idea of increasing the quan- 
tity of his land, by increasing the depth of its soil? 
A man Who has ten acres of land, which he worJ& 



DEEP PLOUGHING. 71 

ten inches deep, will make as much or more from it* 
than anothei from twenty acres which is worked only 
five inches deep. What an immense saving oi labor ! 
What an immense saving of land ! 

4. More abundant crops. It is admitted by all 
fanners, that in order to insure good crops, the soil 
must be kept in fine tilth, and that to" a considerable 
depth; that d<-t p ploughing is calculated to produce 
both these effects is evident to all who have any ex- 
perience in this practice. Deep ploughing also ad- 
mits of closer planting, by which means the ctop is 
made more abundant than it would be on the same 
soil with shallow ploughing. Deep ploughing also 
prevents the crop from being cut off by too much 
wet or a long drought, and frequently saves it when 
it is foul, when shallow ploughings would only tend 
to destroy it. 

5. A saving of labor. One of the objections that 
is frequently made to deep ploughing is, the greater 
strength of team that*will be requisite to perform it, 
and consequently an additional expense. This ob- 
jection, I believe, on consideration, will also he found 
to be without foundation. True it is, that the first 
ploughing requires more strength of team hut then 
it is equally as true, that if the plough is a g ( d one 
iov the purpose, almost double the quantity will be 
performed in a given time. And as ;^h- 
ed in this way will not acquire the same degree of 
firmness for many years aTferwards, although it 
-jhould remain untilled , it will be found that dree 
horses to a plough will be sufficient for after- plough- 
ings, even for a grass lav ; and that two such teams 
will perform as much in a day as six hoists in three 
ploughs of the common kind and descriptor 
ploughing. Here then is a ploughman saved. Jn 
addition to this, it is to be renumbered; that for rea- 
sons before given-, land cultivated in this way, W 



73 DEEP.. PLOUGHING. 

be preserved in good tilth with much fewer plough?- 
rngs than in the other mode. Thus, let the subject 
be considered on whatever ground we choose to take 
it up, either with respect to the preservation of the 
soil, closer plaining, the quantity of produce, or the 
quantum oflabor bestowed, the advantages are greatly 
tvor of deep, over shallow ploughing* 



DEEP PLOUGHING, 

■ v Continued. 

Ko. XVI, 

This subject is not yet exhausted; and if the reb> 
-der feels its importance as much as I do, in consi- 
dering it the basis of agriculture, and upon which all 
radical improvements of the soil must depend, he 
will attend me in the following remarks, which will 
conclude the subject. Another material evil that 
results irom the practice of shallow ploughing, and 
h applies to all surfaces, level as well as hilly, is 
tbe injur}- a growing crop sustains lor want of a more 
regular quantity of moisture in the soil : We know, 
by experience, that either extreme (viz. too much wet 
or a drought) is fau* 10 most of our • rops ; that the- 
practice of shallow ploughing is calculated to pro- 
duce both at different periods, is evident : for during 
a long continuance pf wet, the water must stagnate 
in abundance about the* roots of the plants, there not 
being a sufficient quantity of loose earth to absorb it : 
ami on the contrary, a short continuance of drought, 
its nearly the whole of the moisture contained- 



in, the thin covering of loose earth ; and it is not tp 
be supposed that the tender roots of plants in quest 
of a supply, can penetrate the compact earth b 
which has never been s.irred or broke up by dt ep 
ploughing. By the practice of shallot ploughing, 
the top soil or mould being constantly stirred, is ren- 
dered so loose and light, that ll not carried off by 
hard dashing rains (an event which inevitably takes 
place on hilly lands,) s r ndered dead and unpro- 
ductive* by being exposed to the rays of the sun, by 
which all moisture. or nutriment of vegetables is ex- 
tracted. If manures art applied to shaHow worked 
soils, their good effects, in general, will be of short 
continuance, as most kinds must soon travel the road 
the virgin soil has gone before them. 

Let us now fur her consider some of the advanta- 
ges of deep ploughing, 

Whatever manures are applied to deep worked 
soils, are sure to be retained ; and further, if dews 
are nutritive, the superior openness of the texture of 
the soil in this mode, qualifies it to derive every ad- 
vantage to he expected horn that source. But, oer- 
haps, one of the most valuable of all the effects re- 
sulting from deep ploughing is, that. it in a great mea- 
sure preserves an equal quantity of moisture in the 
soil; for, as we seldom have a rain s > gnat as to 
produce an unhealthy stagnation oi water about the 
roots of plants set in a soil seven or eight inches 
deep ; so, on the contrary, we scarcely ever have a 
drought of so long continuance as to extract all the 
moisture to that depth; — for it is to be remembered 
that after a few inches nearest t he sin lace, mo- 
is extracted by slow degrees. Thus it appears, from 
the foregoing observations, that by this mode of 
practice, the great loss sustained by washing, an evil 
so much to be dreaded in this country, is avoided^ 
that whatever manures are applied, are safely depo- 



V4 DL'EP PLOUGHING. 

sited and will act wiih full effect; that the growing 
plants are abundantly supplied during the whole of 
their growth, both summer and winter, with an open 
soil, for a free extension ol their roots, and also, with 
a regular supply of moisture, so that their growth is 
at no time impeded by any small irregularity of sea- 
son ; the depth of soil being to them, with respect to 
wet and dry, what the ocean is to small islands, with 
respect to heat and cold, the means of a tolerably re- 
gular temperature, 

I cap readily anticipate the remarks of our stick- 
lers for old prejudices, on what has been advanced 
on the subject oi deep ploughing* 

This reasoning (say they) well applies to deep rich 
soils ; but in poor shallow soils, u let him beware of 
the yellow clay, the dead earth, lest the value of his 
land proves to be the price of his too adventurous 
experiments." But, let me ask them, have they ne- 
ver seen the effects of earth taken out of cellars and 
Wells, when applied to poor lands ? Have they never 
observed the luxuriant growth of grass and weeds, 
at the edge of a bank taken from a mill race or a 
large ditch, and Frequently on the very top when fiat 
enough to retain moisture ? For my own part, I 
Rave long been in the habit of observing these things, 
and do not recollect that I ever saw any earth taken 
from a -considerable-, depth below the surface which 
was capable of being pulverized by frost or tillage, 
without evident advantage, even when clay has been 
applied to (lav, and sand to sand. 

Seeing this is a fact, is there any good reason 
for supposing, that as we ascend towards the surf.ee, 
such a difference will be found in the properties of 
the earth, that 'his will render the same land sterile, 
that the other will enrich.? I confess I see none; I 
cannot even see, why we may not with propriety sup- 
cose, that the first six inches of €anh next below the 



usual ploughing, should be possessed of all the ferti- 
lizing qualities, that the same kind of earth would 
be, if found six feet below. 

The prejudices of those against deep ploughing;, 
have no doubt arisen from injudicious experiments. 
Very few farmers break up ground in the fall; in 
the spring their teams are often weak, and were they 
disposed to plough a spot of ground deeper than 
usual, would very likely choose to do it when wet, 
on account of its being easier performed, and then 
would plough it into a fiat surface ; soon after which 
the crop is planted or sowed, which proves the worse 
for the experiment, and the farmer is, therefore, dis- 
gusted with the practice ; he informs his neighbors 
of the ill success of his experiments; and, perhaps, 
a whole neighborhood is thereby afresh confirmed in 
their former belief, that the good old way is th< 
-* to plough as deep as they find black soil, and no 
deeper. 

Ploughing land in the spring, that contains a con- 
siderable portion of clay in a state too wet to break, 
as the soil turns over, is thereby rendered more 
compact, and when hardened by the sun, becomes 
entirely unfitted for the production of vegetables; 
and is scarcely to be reduced by any succeeding til- 
lage during the same summer ; and, indeed, I be- 
lieve nothing short of a winter's frost will effectually 
pulverize it. It must, therefore, never be forgotten, 
that ploughing stiff soils, when over wet, the mischief 
is incalculable, at least irreparable for that season^ 
Deep ploughing a naked and poor soil into a flat sur- 
face, by which what little soil there is, is turned un- 
der, and the dead earth brought up :n its place, al- 
ways proves pernicious. 



76 BEE? PLOUGHING. 

These cases are cited to shew, how easily the best 
devised system of practice, may be rendered entirely 
abortive, by being put into the hands of unskilful 
practitioners to execute. Those who wish to adopt 
the practice of deep ploughing with success, would 
perhaps do well particularly to atteud to the follow- 
ing simple rules. 

1. Ground that is to be ploughed deep, should in- 
variably be broke up in the fall. The advantages of 
ploughing at this time of the year are grr at. The 
soil by being exposed throughout winter to the in- 
iluer.ee of the atmosphere — to freezings and thaws, 
is pulverized and rendered (pen. loose and mellow. 

The air contains the principal store of materials 
tor the food of plants, and will impregnate the clay 
or dead earth turned up by deep ploughing, if ex- 
posed a sufficient length of time, especially in winter, 
when* it receives much and parts with little ; the heat 
of the sun being then feeble, and incapable of dis- 
pelling what the soil receives from the air. 

2. Land that is ploughed deep, should also inva- 
riably be bedded, viz. thrown into high ridges with 
deep water furrows. The advantages of ridging are 
numerous. 

By ridging, the surface exposed to the atmosphere 
to be improved by its influence, is considerably in- 
creased | it collects the existing soil in the ct mire of 
the ridge and deposits the sterile or dead earth on 
its two sides ; and by ihis means, on poor land, the 
soil is doubled for a present crop, and the dead earth 
lying on the sides of the ridges is exposed to the at- 
mosphere to be improved for a future one ; thus the 
injury which would otherwise arise from mingling 
too much dead earth with the 501I is avoided. I 
therefore do not think there is any danger in 6ttp 
ploughing on'ihe poorest soil in ridges, though in a 
£at surface it would be pernicious* 



KG. 7 1 

When artificial manuring attends deep 
ing, or when a good coat of weeds, grass or < 
is turned under, this practice is attended Willi i 
certain success : — its advantages are greater and 
more immediately experienced ; — as by it the manure 
is completely secured from evaporation- 
deepened and fructified— and the e: 
on vastly increased. 

4. When lands are ploughed deep, v 
be in too great a hurry to reap a pr< fit 
unless they are manured. Indian corn shou 
the first crop put on • round after it is deeply plough- 
ed ; because this crop n he soil to be con- 
stantly stirred and exposed, which are necessary to 
improve the substratum turned up by thia mode of 
ploughing. 

In the course of my remarks, I have been indebt- 
ed For some valuable hint^ to a work ori deep plough- 
ing by Thos. Moor.:, Esq. an experienced and dis- 
tinguished farmet of Maryland, which I consider 
•one of the most v, cultural treatises ever 

yet offerd. to the public. I wish it were more ge- 
nerally id the hand of farmers. But I have endea- 
vored to supply this desideratum by what is 
\ liDjg essay* 



I ZONTAL PLOUGHING, 



T htrc is no i m prove raent in a- 

to be of more lasting benefit to our country, 
h< . 
Such has been the system* of agri< ngus 

past, that hilly or broken lands have been 
BO sooner cleared, than waste;, 

test the correct. ess- of this assertion, we ;?eed 
only cast our eyes over the different parts of our 
cc untry, to behold thousands of acres of hilly land 
red entirely barren, not so much from the ve- 
getable nutriment being extracted by the crops cui- 
tiv$t< '-1, as from, the soil itself being washed 

and deposited in low and sunken places, creeks, 
hoi 
.. ould be the consequences of such a system 
of Agriculture, if it admitted of no remedy or im- 
• t? As a great part of the United States 
. c roken land, the consequences 
: only have terminated in the destruction qi 
the solf'j but would have extended to the impove- 
rishment of h i, and even the destruction 
of navigation itself, 

I do not, there. believe, that hori- 

zontal and deep plougl romise to be the salva- 

.ariy if combined whh 
) ing, the use of Piaster of Paris and Red Clo- 

Mpr UghTrfg was first introduced into 

ic~e in this country by Col. Rai of Virgi- 

BbArtn-l.aw to Mr. Jefferson, Mr. Jefferson, 
»bo has frequently witnessed t] and be 



HORIZONTAL PLOtJGIZIN'O* J*9 

fleets resulting from this practice, not only on 
the farm of Col. Randolph, but also on his own, thus 
details the mode of horizontal ploughing in a letter 
to a distinguished farmer of Massachusetts, and pub- 
lished in the Agricultural Repository 

" Horizontal Ploughing has been practised here 
(Virginia) by Col. Randolph, my son-in-law, who 
first introduced it, about a dozen or fifteen years ago. 
Its advantage^ were so soon observed that it has al- 
ready become very general, and has entirely changed 
and renovated the face of our country, kvery rain 
before that, while it did a temporary good, did great « 
er permanent evil, by carrying off our soil, and fields 
were no sooner cleared than wasted ; at present, we 
may say that we lose none of our soil — the rain not 
absorbed in the moment of its fall being retained in 
the hollows of the beds until it can be absorbed.— 
Our practice is, when we first enter on this proc> 
with a rafter level of ten feet span, to lay off guide 
lines, conducted horizontally around every hill side, 
and about thirty yards apart ; the steps of the level 
on the ground are marked by the strokes of a hoe, 
and immediately followed by a plough to preserve 
the trace j a man, or a boy of 12 or 15 years old 
with the level, &c two smaller boys to mark the steps, 
the one with sticks, the other with the hoe, will do 
an acre of this an hour, and when once done, it is 
forever done. We generally level a field the yenv 
it is put into Indian corn, until ail have been once 
levelled : the intermediate furrows are run by the; 
eye of the ploughman, governed by these guide lines, 
and is so done as to lay the earth in horizontal beds 
of 6 feet wide with deep hollows or water furrows 
between them, to held superfluous rain — the inequa- 
*: Uclivity in the hill will vary in places the 






. ' :ZONTAL PLOUGHING; 



:e of the guide lines, and occasion gores, x, 
i rito short beds. 

" 1 h:-.ve transferred this method of ploughing to 
a possession I have near Lynchburg 90 miles to the 
,-.. W. from this place, where it is spreading rapidly,, 
and ' - salvation of that, as it confessedly has 

13 of this part of the country. 

" Horizontal and deep ploughing, with the use of 
plaster and clover, which are but beginning to be 
used. here,. we believe will restore this part of our 
country to its original fertility, which was exceeded 
hy no upland in the State." 

As many persons may not have a correct idea of 
the rafter level, the use of which is recommmended 
.in this Essay, the Editor has procured the annexed, 
engraved representation of it. 




-£i b r!rce'f3-ary to caution trie reader, that unless 

tal ploughing be correctly done, it had better 

>e done at atlj because I have i I that 

..,<. 3 havo attempts &£* •? *'**# of ploughing, with- 



/ 



o:dX understanding its principles : water fur- 

rows, which are intended to Suotts* 

water, have the least descent u fir another, 

they will nave the effect of thi the water to 

one point, where such a quantity will be collected in 
heavy rains by a number ot water furrows hading to 
the same point, as will inevitably p: . reach 

through the ridges. It is advisable, that heforc the 
level is applied to a field,. its suriaCe be made as even 
as possible ,* this is best done, it' its une\enmss ren- 
ders it necessary-, by flushing up the ground in the 
fall or winter with a mould board plough, and early 
in the spring to be well harrowed with a two horse 
Harrow; this last operation will not only level the 
suriace, but will have the additional valuable effect 
of breaking the clods and thereby effectually pulve- 
rizing the ground, which will prove of great ad v aft,' 
tage to the corn in every stage of its growth. The 
level, in this case, may be applied in the spring and 
i)ic ground listed or thrown into horizontal drills fur 
the planting of the corn. Success in horizontal 
ploughing depends on the exactness of the level to 
suspend, and the depth of the ploughing to absorb 
the water. Inclosing is indispensably necessary to 
make it beneficial, as by that, the earth is brought 
into a proper state for absorbing more water, and the 
suspension of the progress of this water by its vege- 
table cover, allows more time for the operation of- 
absorption— In heavy rains, when the ground is in 
cultivation, and however accurately leveled, instan- 
ces will occasionally occur of breaches across the 
horizontal beds — The remedy is, to fill them imme- 
diately with brush having the leaves on, well packed. 

These instances, however, are very rare, and ea- 
sily thus cured- 

Besides the inestimable advantages from horizon- 
tal ploughing in protecting the soil against tb* - 



HORIZONTAL PLOUGHING. 

:ng effect of rains, there is a great one in its preven- 
ting the rains themselves from being lost to the crop. 
The Indian corn is the cr jp which most exposes the 
soil to be carried off by ruins; and it is at the same 
time the crop which most needs them— Where the 
land is not only hilly, but the soil thirsty, (as is ge- 
nerally the case with such lands) the preservation of 
the rain as it falls, between the drilled ridges, is of 
peculiar importance; and its gradual settling down- 
wards to the roots, is the best possible mode of sup- 
plying them with moisture. In the old method of 
ploughing shallow up and downhill, the rain as well 
as the soil was lost, which not only destroyed the 
upland, but rushed down and poisoned the vallies* 
The result of horizontal ploughing in Virginia is 
extremely encouraging to those who may wish to 
adopt this practice here. Farms there which are 
very hilly, whose soils were particularly liable to be 
washed awav, and which Were excessively galled and 
gullied, have been relieved probably, of nineteen parts 
in twenty of those calamities by horizontal and deep 
ploughing in combination with inclosing. 






FALL PLOUGHING 



No. XVIII. 



There is no operation in husbandry more ifl 
pensabie, and none more neglected, than tall plough 
ing. 'i hat its advaniaj ■ have bee~ 

served, by its not being attended to, is not sur- 
prising, when our imperfect system ok' agriculture is 
considered. The frequent failures in making corn 
crops, prove that our system of farming is bad ir 
deed ; and one of the most prominent caust 

failures, is the neglect of fall ploughing. I am 
confident in saying it, that were farmers in the 
of breaking up their corn ground deep in the IV 
early in the winter, that rarely a year would occur ii 
which the most abundant crops would not be m 
The following, are some oi the advantages of 
lowing land in the fall, preparatory for a rorn 
to be planted thereon the next or succeed '■•. 

1. By turning under a cover, ■ lover or 
grass, which are deposited so deep as to be beyom 
the reach of e\ n, and • 

putrefaction, fertilize the 

2. By breaking up the gi in the fall, to 
be exposed throughout w iluence oi the 
atmosphere, its texture will be much iropi 

pansive powers of ice, the /gradual cHssolut 
■of snows, and tbe alternati' 

vcrize it and to n 
timafel h<r. 

3. By destn ubs or cut worms, so 

i young In 
have been devised and reci 
CJiJ w 



o-i- I ALL PLOUGHING. 

one has been entirely overlooked. In all instances' 
where fields have been Call ploughed, harrowed in the 
direction of the furrows, and it', in addition to this, 
lime has been spread to lie over winter, no grubs 
have disturbed the young corn. 

The field must be wholly ploughed, otherwise a 
nursery is left for the grubs, sufficient to spread over 
the ploughed part, in that remaining in the sod. — 
The fact is indubitable, and the reason is obvious. 
The beetle seen. through the summer tolling balls of 
cow-dung and depositing them in the ground, thus 
protects its progtny ; which issue out in myriads in 
the spring and destroy the young corn and tobacco 
plants. Plough up your ground in the fall, harrow 
it, and expose the nurseries of vermin to the winter 
frosts, and yoiHnsure against their mischiefs — Lime 
in addition (though it may be dispensed with) com- 
pletes their destruction. 

4 A. saving of labor- When corn ground is not 
brok n up until spring, the fanner is frequently com- 
1 to do it when the soil is not in a proper con- 
dition for the operation. The rains that generally 
tali throughout winter, and the melting of snows in 
ring, so completely saturate the soil with mois- 
ture, that *he farmer is compelled to break up his 
'and in balks, or lose the chance for a crop ; for to 
wait until the soil is sufficiently dry to plough to ad- 
vantage, would bring him late in the spring. Hetice 
he is under the n^cesaity of giving several a 
,«1 plou^hings, to break the balks after the crop is 
olanted, and the injury which the land receives by 
oeing broken up too wet, is much greater than many 
are aware of, and such as is not soon rehired or 
remedied. 

But, by breaking up ground in the fall and early 
in winter, as is herein recommended, it is done at a 
season of the year when the vegetable matter which 



LL PLOUGHING. 85 

covets the surface is in a proper state to be turned 
under, and the soil in a good condition for plough- 
ing and breaking up freely ; and by being exposed 
throughout winter to the influence of ice and frost, 
the soil, by spring, will be in a fine loose, mellow 
condition, however cloddy it may have broke up. — 
uiu will thus have your ground ready for plant- 
ing in the spring ; and what is infinitely of greater 
advantage, you wdl have plenty of fine mould 10 nou- 
rish the roots oi the young corn, and thus give it 
an early start in growing — advantages which are of 
the utmost importance in the cultivation of this crop, 
and which no spring ploughing, towever well done, 
c»uld possibly give. 

In this case, the crop will not suffer much by 
grass, even should wet weather in the spring prevent 
its being worked, as the deep ploughing in the win- 
ter buried their seeds too deep to make much ap- 
pearance ; and a considerable saving of labor will be 
effected in the ease with which the ground will be 
•worked, owing to its lightness or mellowness, and in 
not requiring much stirring. 

The advantages of fall ploughing on land inclined 
to be wet, or on flat marshy land, as preparatory to 
a corn crop to be planted thereon the succeeding 
year, are also verv great, so much so, as to insure 
more than a double crop to what would be made if 
the ploughing is put off 'till spring. Land cf this 
nature, from the worst, is capable, by skilful plough 
drainings in the fall, of being converted into the I i st 
of our soils. This is to be effected by ploughing 
the ground into high ridges and deep furrows; the 
wider the ridge, the deeper the furrow may be made ; 
and in ridges calculated for Indian corn, which may 
be five and a half or seven feet wide, the bottom 01 
the furrow may easily be made fifteen indies lower 
than the top of the ridge. In case of a descent, the 



TALL F^OUCHi:-. 

deep water furrows will serve as drai:i9 to fconvey- 
off the stagnant or superfluous wattr ; and even on 
a dead level, the deepness of the furrows will relieve 
the ridges above of a saturity of moisture, and by 
being exposed to frost, will become sufficiently dry 
and friable by spring for the corn to be planted there- 
on — It is in this way that even the most sour, harsh 
and infertile clay soil, may be made to produce good 
crops ; for it has been found that nothing confers so 
great a benefit upon this kind of soil, as by being 
ridged up and exposed to severe frost; ridging it up 
is essentially necessary, because if ploughed into 
broad fiat lands, this kind of soil has a tendency to 
consolidate or bake, which the former practice will 
prevent by drying and draining. 

To test the utility of fall and early winter plough- 

r corn, let one half of a field be broken up at 

this season, and the other half remain unbroken till 

fall ploughed part will exhibit by far 

Crop, will work easier and lighter throughout 

less grass, and will appear in compari 

•. otl r as if it had been manured- 



GRASSES 



No. XIX 



The ju3 "-.ltivation of 

-least expensive aAd ,.Me part o; 

Landry ('.or on it every other part may be said to 
•,d) has hitherto beets toe much neglected by the 
generality of our I .is they have been 

blind to their »t. In 01 e success- 

ful, a Parmer endekvor and culti- 

vate such gra: (otheyar* 

rious soils, of \vh osed ; re 

that every spot, from the drytst hiil to the wettest 
swamp, n fitable 

productions Nothing more" beti imperfect 

system of agriculture ex 
•than the almost total n 
grasses. Not even re<\ clo r, 
►head of-them, has, as meli- 

orim.pt oil. By a neglect oi 

othtr '. our i nds ar ■ • i 

ishtd state, but on 
felt as an 
stnt mode o' man 
supported from the corn- 5 

offal or the corn field, and at - the 

expense that they might h 1 m to 

grass. A rriead : . 

by ' ycty i real, vj 

support ol . 1 i- oth - iree which 

; >ssessed : and, in ping them poor, 

es, in vvint' r, b\ an insufficient supply 
of foot!, and of turning them out in summer on pas- 



tures thinly covered with a natural and coarse hejft- 
bage,— he would, in the former season, have a plen- 
tiful supply of hay for them, and in the latter, luxu- 
riant guss, by which they would be kept fat, and 
><£ierel y made a profit, instead of an expense* 

In t-v- r\ part of the union where agriculture is 
conhsst ci to he conducted upon in pr« >\?o principles, 
the cultivation of artificial grasses is an dbji ct of 
r> importance with the farmer; so much so, 
that their cultivation is embraced as a part of every 
£ r od rotation of crops* 

In Pennsylvania, the introduction and general cul- 
tivation of artificial grasses, particularly red clover, 
lias added millions to the wealth of her farm, rs A 
[Pennsylvania farmer, who knows the advantage of a 
timothy or clover meaur^v, considers it a folty to 
spend time in collecting corn blades. 

The time is fast approaching, w-hen the farmers of 
Noith- Carolina will he a weakened to their better in- 
terest with respect to the cultivation of grasses. — 
They will discover, that whether they cultivate Wheat 
or Tobacco, it will be necessary, and highly to their 
^ntertst, to combine with them, by degrees, highland 
meadows, hay and meats, for market. 

The price of meat and draft animals is increasing, 
and will increase whilst our agriculture is in its pre- 
pent stat«i 

There are a great number of artificial grasses which 
are more or less valuable according lo the soil an*i 
climate in which they are cultivated. But their num- 
ber and variety are not so essential, as a correct se- 
lection from among them. 

I shall proceed to describe such grasses, as from 
experien e and observation, appeal to be best adapt- 
ed to the soil and climate o{ North-Garo)ina,-whicij 
must always be kept id view in treating 01 
ject 



Ifed' Clever— This is the most valuable of all the 
artificial grasses. No otiv r gra^s can compete with 
<his for the prompt amelioration or impr \\ 
the soil — aidt»d by plaster, it does c v« rv tl 
exhausted lands ) and much for any othj* ^"'.Id It 
yields a hay, not surpass d by .t > 
. bundance, or in nutritive and wn» les tf\ qualities*)-— 
But as red clover hns air n fully 

in a former number, to which the readci is reft 
it is needless to enlarge on it here* 

Tvn r Ahy, — This is a Well fctrown, favorite and na- 
tive grass of the northern and mid le States. Timo- 
thy succeeds best m a moist low ground ; it is well 
calculated totanprove ri»oisf.meadows overgrown with 
moss. The best way of sowing it upon Such lands,, 
is immediately after they are cleared and lr :; 
On uplands, it is best sown with red cloy* r. as this 
mixture makes the best ha}',* another advantag of 
sowing them together is, that the timothy will answer 
to support the clover should it be inclined to fall or 
lodge. When, hoWever, it i3 sown with grain, no 
clover se^d should be mixed with it; but may after 
it is cUt, be mixed with the clover hay in alu 
layers. — When sown with grain on uplands, it will be 
sheltered from thi sun until after harvest, wh u it 
will imve acquired suffi ieht strength Jto bear Che heat 
ol our summers* 

The first year, after grain harvest, it may be lightly 
pastured, but the second year it must be kept up for 
hay, of which it will yield an abundant crop, if the 
ground has been vvelj prepared* 

Timothy should not be cut until in full blossom 
or not until the young leaves be seen coming out 
from near the surface, which, if the grass be then 
cut, will start up ivith igor, stand the sua, and yield 
fitte pasture-* li it be xtn too early, or before it is in 



90 Cr&*bw* 

-rr>, It is xpt to ble< (I, v/ 
■ 

On Up! ji of timothy h 

is— ort niLiM Kiiids or on th<. 
t^J or ft ict is far 

: -hy yield* an a! urtdanVe of seed, at i 
twenty to thirty bushels to the acre. But this grass 

y cultivated and known, t] — 

geifiuou* to enlarge ?■ 



I 

hard Grm:», ' .-,•», 

•ated griassts for uphmds, in this 
country. It is pi 

Under the shade of trees ; and hence it ! Or~ 

chard Grass, tt springs quirkly after < 
plentiful pasture, and those; who know it be 
the hay to any other. It is," on uplands, prefer a bits 
to timothy ? which eat exhauster, — yields but 

one crop of hay, anrl little or no pasturt , 
thus having the field bare of cover ; and exp 
2& to the exhaustion of the sun and winds : w 
orchard grass, by its quick and repeated gr< wins, af- 
fords a ceaseless cover and defence. T 
will be permanent, when clover, (with which it is a 
profitable companion) fails. 

All beasts are fond of it, both as pasture and haw 
"Any soil is a&itaWe for it, if not wet: all high and. 



3— \ir- m 

lolla al»e Well adapted -to it; but a Sandy team of 
'good staple is the fittest. 

This grass should be cut for hay 33 aoott as it 16 
"completely in head and blossom ; if it stands for 
need, the leaves fall, and the stalk grows rigid and 
■worthies** No crop yields more abundantly and 
profitably than one of this grass raised merely fo£ 
seed. But the grass is discredited by those who aim 
at too much- They suffer it to stand to ripen the 
seed, and thus ruin the hay» 

When seed is intended to be raised, a -Spot or patch 
pf it should be exclusively devoted to this purpose-, 
and not cut for hr.v. 

When gathered for seed, it should be tied up .m 
"■small bundles ; a few strokes ovd a barrel, when the 
heads are sufficiently dry, (like detaching the seed 
from flUx ) vy ill disengage all the seed, and leave the 
chaff. Orchard grass is extensively cultivated in 
Pennsylvania and. also hi many patts of Virginia ; it 
would Ere fouflnd to succeed equally well in North- 
[ifla< 

A disthy^nhed farther* of Pennsylvania observes, 
•* I know the valud-of Orchard Grass and can vouch 
"for its superior qualities 3 having constantly sown i', 
for a period o£ 40 years* I generally sow it on mv 
wheat in the autumn, covering l ' (a busl 

and a peck to a bushel and a half, p< r acre) with the 
last harrowing* Some sow it in th ; spring, but I 

fer the fall. Much depends on the soil and sea- 
son, and both periods can be tried, to enable the far- 
mer to form the best opinions I sow or, tne wl 
in February or March, about six pou of 

red clover ; and these pknts are read) fori icytho 
at the same time* The orchard .grass should he fi * 



for hay when the panicles are fairly formed, and this 
as about the time when the heads of the clover begin 
EOttyco* 

Tiiis grass is apt to grow in tufts or tussocks if 
rsown too thin . to remeily which, a plenty oi 
should be allowed. Great impositions may be prae* 
tise4 in selling orchari grass seed— so thatrfrequenf- . 
ly chaff fills the bushel, and the price deters its gene- 
ral use. It should be sold by weight; and in thia 
case, the chaff sellers would be disappointed, and the 
buyers of seed would be fairly dealt by'« It is far 
best for farmers to raise their own- seed ; as none; 
can be raised more easily nor abundantly. A small 
patch Would make a great turn out. The English 
name of Oreh is is Cocksfoot — the Latin oi 

JLinnean, BactylH Gibmersfta* 

Tall Meadow 3 called " Egy . 

wi Peruvian Grass." The qualities b£ 
this grass are, to produce heavy crops of fine hay vet 
strong land — 13 6ea> drought better than any other 
— to live in lanp . ciovei perishes, and 

to aifoid to it cover and vegetable matter— to bear 
grazing well — to adhere long to the land-*-ar.d \c> 
vield both gi('(l Seed- and good hay at e cuV 

ting. The greatest defect J this grass are, 

Its propensity to grow in tussocks, and to shed its 
see'd while yet green. Thefbriner may be remediett 
by sowing it thick, and the latter, by cutting it at the 
proper ju 

Stocks of all kinds ,. \ meadow oat, 

chough when mixed with rtd clover, they prefer trie 

latter. 3 rtinacious in this preference. 

It bear: graztpg better tfltffc anv h< r grass, and 

e fix q itc.n t repetitions of it, allowing; it short in- 

als to spring up, after being eaten d >w». It a£- 

after being well set in strong stiff land, 

: jUilc throng the Winter. C 






is in 'flower and before the seed ripen*, it makes fin« 
hay j and good after a portion of the seed is ripe— * 
The tops being dipt of] with a si seed, the 

residue will make tolerable hay ; and this is the bes* 
mode of saving seed* As soon as it springs alter 
being cut, grazing m. i upon it and 

continued until March«~Qbserv t ai:>.j wilj determine 
the rest it requires. But it shttuld not I 
whenever the ground is so wet as to admit ot being 
poached, it holds- the ground longer, -and ' resists 
intruders more vigorously iLau i highland 

grass. 

It is an excellent grass to be sown with red d 
by rendering the hay more easily to be cured. I: 
may be sown with oats or wheat, or alone. ltd 
er of resisting drought, and preference of hig i 
and capacity of existing in sand) s« . 
adapt it for th$ soil ana clima 
where it would prove a valaabk acq,ui 



m 

(HUSSSC 
Wontintfctti 

Jfbj XXI. 

Guinea Grac-s,— This grass is as yet little know:^, 
as it has been only partially cultivated in tire United 
States.' But the few experiments made in its culti- 
vation, have succeeded so \v ell as to prove that it i$ 
well adapted to the soil and climate of the Southern 
3tates. If has been proved to yield a -quantity of 
grass and hay, almost exceed ing x belief* It meritS 
the Particular attention of the farmers of North-Ca- 
rolina ; tor should it be found to Succeed well in this 
State, it would prove of more real value to them thatft 
the discovery oi a gold mine* The writer has mad*-; 
several fruitiest attempts to procure some of the seed 
of this grass ; he means still to persevere in bis ex- 
ertions, aivd with the view of inspiring others with 
the like desire of -introducing this Valuable grass a« 
mong U3, and of interesting them in its favor, the fol- 
lowing account of it isgiven, as taken from a conifc 
rtunication addressed by *Drr'S< Brown of Natchez-, 
M. T. to the Philadelphia Agricultural Society. 

*.-ix years ago, I saw one or two plants of the' 
'Guinea Grass, in the garden of M. T'reme, near trre 
city of New- Orleans j but as I was, at that time, in 
no way concerned in agricultural ptirsuits, it attract- 
ed little of my attention. Last autumn, I again me* 
with it, in great perfection at Mr. M.unsonV, a few 
miles north of Fort Adams. Although Mr. Munsort 
had not more than half a dozen plants, he obligingly 
furnished me with a pint of Sued, which I shared 
%yith my friends hi this territory, % mtucky, and irj 
r ;\rrnec"£e-^~- Having determined to cultivate tfet& 



ion on it ; 
aj #tre within my reach. In Ihyan Edpriii 
tory of Jan 

m Guinea gi 
au;;; % .r cane, in point orunce, 

farms thrbughou riginally 

cr< . i art still bq i hitfly by in, am of 

this invaluable herbage* Hence th< pie rn- 

td cuttle both for the Ui r, which is 

Bucfo, that few marietta in Europe c 
at a cheaper rate or of 
ca« It thrives on the i- 
1 itoiving verdure i 

1 Fr m Willich's D nnestic 1 i I make 
%fYe following extract.' 

*' Guinea grass, a Vahn hie sf \gc,thur, 

ominattd, as it v 

of Guinea, m : was brought to Jamaica rfnd af- 

I t< d into thia ( I 1») — »■ 

About tO years since, it \ 'hd 

and gtows to the height ot seven fett; it adm.ts of 

ing freqw it, and makes 

car it both in a fh sh and dr^ great avid- 

ity ; hence ire of this valuable < 

■•, strongly recommended to. the farmers of C i 
wall r»d D vonsbir ." 

'Thi s. ii l v qumt remarks on the culture of tbijr 
grass, ar<- by the late Henry Laurens, of South-Ca- 
rolina : ,? * 

u 1:1 the Inst spring I procured from J-am; ica three 
half pints of Guinea grass seed, which I I ; io 

drills ol one fourth of an acre of vtry ind' J ff( rtni 
Ian T seed sprung** and soon covered the ground* 
Willi grass, four f et high and upwards. B< ing de- 
sirous ei saving as much seed as possible> I eul tifr 



bundle of grass for horses ; th -:y ate it all with greatf 
avidity. In August I t>'ok one of the grass roots 
and divided it >nto twenty eight parts, which were 
immediately replanted ; every part took root, and the 
whole are now growing vcrv finely,* and seeding* 

" I am of opinion this grass will make the best 
pasture we can wish for. Ii is easily managed, re- 
quires but one good hoeing, aktr which, it will take 
ear* of itself." 

* ith this stock of information, I commenced m^r 
exp< riments. In the month of April, i prepar d a 
•pit c of ground in the citv af Natduz, and planted 
the seed I h:»d reserved for myself, in holes two fe«t 
distant from each other. 

' When the plants attained such a size as would 
admit of it, I took them up. and dividing the r or« t 
set them out when the soil was wet, and in this way 
filled up the ground I had appropriated to mv expe- 
riments. I did not begin to cut the grass un'.tl the 
1 6th oi' July, I then weighed the produce of one seed, 
in -the presence of a number of gentlenjen^ at Mr. 
Bohirisori's .hotel in Natchez. One hundred and 
sixty-four stalks, from six to seven feet high, grow- 
ing from one r >t, weighed together *0 pounds—- 
At Mr. Wind's tavern, on the l'th of September, a 
second cutting from one seed, weighed S3 pounds. 
H fUtnbtr of s f aiks was 184, some of which mea- 
sured 10 feet 11 inches in length. Some parts o£ 
the lot in Natchez is very poor soil, and ;he grass 
on these places did not grow higher t-han six or se~ 

* li is c jrioOs ro calculate the cjjiantity which an industrious 
plan-. in frora one seejdi Suppose that each of the 

root pTodtfced less than one half of the num- 
* ted from one seed, for instance 50 stalks, 

fehis will give 1400 ttalks in one season, from a single seed.-— 
s.\. a . \ Me jeai', these will attuia the heisrni 

al at ieaat seven feet; iKuMrby fc. Brc 



GLASSES. 

>ven feet, lJut on a g od soil, in a favorable seasom, 
ir, tins climate., I urn persuaded it is a very moderate 
«st-irnat<. ic allow to v> ry square yard 10 pounds at 
a cutting, wh n we cut only three times in the sea- 
son. This would give SO pounds to every square 
yard or V47,00 pounds of green grass to th< tre. 
But this production seems so enormous, that I should 
not have ventured on such a calculation h.;d I not 
the respectable authority of Mr. Edwards to su 
me. He asserts that the Scots grc»ss, which he seems 
to consider as far inferior to -the Guinea gras~, is sc 
productive that one acre of it will suppoit five h< 
ses the whole year round, allowing eai h horse 5$ 
pounds per day, which is 102,200 pounds per ai 
Admitting that my • alculations are extravagant^ let 
tis suppose that an acre will produce one third of 
what I have stated, still we must consider Gu< 
gras c as the m< st valuable of ail the known grass? s. : 

At k Per.yfirld, near Fort Adams Mr. ( 
ray manager* plant< d abjut the eighth of an a 
very fertile iand, with planes obtained from I 
Munson,.in the first .and Second week of M& * 
grew wirfiout any troul t that o: 

down the first growth tii weeds. On the 2 l 
Jvi , he began to cut it for the use of the pi i 
h. rses and mules ; and this snro! quantity < I 
ccntii i-ued to . \u m with as much as they could 

' ;j it, during the whoi summer. Oh th 

ml - r, he wrote me that be had cut \tjour times, 

t orn 20 t ■■■-•■is he obtained at the fourth cutti 

pounds ol green grass, and in two weeks he would 

fifth Tune. I find no difficulty in coUecting 

<i ; i have already obtained a bush^ in return 

for three cr four spoonfuls, winch 1 sowed on my 

in town — I cut t of the top with 

t! e panicle, as ;! as to i 1!, . nd 

aUcj; it is dry comL ml ith a coarse c< 



&$ GAA-SSSSr. 

As the seeds vegetable v ' >w4y, the ft*. est cer- 

tain m '.! of obtaining youi ig plants wmld be to 
pr: p. the ground and sow the seed as the ci. 
tors 01 tobacco do toba do As soon as the 

plants have attained the height of two or three in- 
and when the danger of frosts is past, they 
should be removeiJto the ground w.here tliey are to 
stand! where they readily take -root.* A rich black 
mould, and a soil I think produces 

-the most luxuriant gra I have had very little 

experience as to the soiis to which it is best adapt- 
ed I hope that before many years, it will be tried 
in every climate in the United States, and on every 
variety of soil* No kind of grass with which I am 
tainted* supports the heat of the sun so well ; and 
this property, was it even less productive, would re- 
it to the notice of the agriculturalist, for, 
from »t of July, until it is killed by the au- 

tumn; 1 frosts, it wiil afford a constant^ and an abun- 
dant supply, of green 'food, and consequently enable 
the farmer, whatever may happen to his othtrmea- 
la\ up a plentiful stock of hay for the win- 

ri The hay is uncommonly fragrant, and horses- 
prefer it greatly to the best corn blades.' 

*• If Guinea grass succeeds as well with others, and 
in every stason, as it has c^ne this season, with me, 
as it has done in the West Indies for more than 
, the planters of the south will have no 
•reason to en\ northern neighbors their luxu- 

riant clover pastures, or their numerous ricks of i-i- 

* There is n :• or? d trangpl mifcg it, than in. plant rg> 

co. A b isket o tw will be 

sufficient or a acre Oni bun b'.-<i plants wouH ena !* a poor -a 

r to supph :i &v.\\ horsey lb lood all 

much would the general c "l ' y '■■■' (1 °' t ' ,:< 

: oi' the poor and -fiddling classes ot'soci. 



rnothy hay. If r: uted for clo- 

ver, ti 

e grounds a~ d to those crops will be 

given to the cultrv 
tenance for the human 

this change will increafl am of national w 

I It-art to those to s .otc, whu arc more co 
sant with such calculations.' 



GRASSES, 

■ 

Ko. XXVL 

:._Trns grass is best v/dl 

• 1 ■ d ; yet i? i 

land • and rather wet ; it 

-consolidate s the surface, so as to rend | 

dry, which v. I and miry. It wi \] 

grow well on h vel stil 
lint hay, and is iu-tttr for 
zing; yr : fond ot 

affords e>x e re. j- 

■ pr,eler cpade eith 

clover or ti 
thy, though not so 
grass hay. will we' third m 

bulk of- timothy* h crop 

from one acre. As it yields no second crop 

8 



I 

in the same season, it ma- 
grazed until Christmas. 

I here is no other artificial low lane 1 grass that con- 
tinues longer in the soil, or is more tenacious of its 
hold than tms ; x it may be sow id m the i i 
is the best season) either UpoU wheat -it-ly 

sown, or among torn, the ground being first pui in 
| tijth* In both easVsyit is- better to e< 
slight! ! ible, or in boih it may be 1. ft urn over* 

<id to the guardianship o: the weather with success. 
Sown mixed with timothy, a better crop rhaj he ix- 
pected the first year, but it. will gradually t at out the 
timothy; and it has been good and thi k lor eight 
years after every souk of the timothy lias disappear- 
ed. In the New England stah-s, farmers more com-' 
mor.ly mix r^d clover with herds gr iss when they 
stock land. It makes the crop stand up better and 
cattle seem to like the mixture better — fhe propor- 
tions commonly are six p umls of clover and two 
:> of herds grass. Herds grass makes botlvgood 
and hay at the same cuttmg, so I 
dance of the former can be saved with i 

»e quantity sown on an acre is not u 
tanL btcaus* grass seed- tan- ot be sown too thick. 
Could it be cleaned of the chaff, a peck would a r. ply 
acre, but as this is difficult, a bushel 
Would not be too much. If the setd is denned of 
the chaff, from six to eight quarts will be sufli ienfc 
For, an acre— from four to six will do well in a good 
soil. 

The seed of this grass is chrap and easily produ- 
ced. Every farmer can raise his own, by It tf 
piece of it get ripe and reaping oft" the tops as direc- 
ted in the case of tali m< ruiow <;.t f :ass.~ 

Herds grass claims the particular attention of 
farmers, who have low, fiat or moist landc ; 



GR A.SSE 



there is no other that Would prove of sr> muck 
valu-- on such laiv : is -nc that should he culti- 

vated by ail those who aim at success in agi icuiiural 
puisui : -■• 

/cW Top — The re d t p is a variety ol h> I 
and they UTe ii many plac< 

f>p, lik herds grass, is peculiarly cah ulated foi 
wet, swamp lapel — it -will grow and s<-.<{ the firbi 

xv 1 1 i give stability or ft mness to i 

soil, as it gr completely to blrfd tne 

soil. Hence it is best adapted -to such land \s is not 

fit f )r th ■■ plough, ai cl i such it will be t >und a rich 

durable grass, ft ! managed like herds- 

••. 

The following re tV ill close our observations 






on grasses. 

f. L;ind she r l ^e laid down to grass,. 

umiKiit be pat in frnt i th a • • d be well cl 

se of crops. Such i 
1 foi ; purp as re j lire the 

nstantly siiired, particularly with the 

fields 
will become foul and -overrun with w dsybefore the 

ted. It is difficult 
td kop an old weedy farm long in grass; and the 
gh must he ofttner used than a clean farm re- 
quires* If land is well .leaned, by adopting a proper 
c urse of crops for the destruction of weeds and 
r pes s and top dressings of manure be applied 
to the grass, it will flourish for many years if it be 
of the permanent kind, and yield fine hay and pas- 
ttn . 

Second. Land should not be kept too long in grass^ 
No grounds should continue in grass Until they be- 
-come hard, bound, and consolidated, and the roots 
become old and matted ; for good crops of 









■ 

i 11 as 
per courses %)i crops, mtvt 
kind of small or Winter gmla 

3tirrlng and culture of trtat and 
lire the corn- 
other Unprofitable ve- 



utting artificial grosses in 
i <- .; ■ ing graz- 

ces. O 
, id giver, to working brasts and cat- 

as three acres grazed ' — be< 
In n cut, 

• ie cat- 
being froddei Fhey 
f< ed with- 
and in consrqu.t>ce *he whole 
food It is remarked by the^tnost cele- 
brated writers on agriculture, that 
can ti > of how few ac* 

■' vi hen 

Diking horses and c 
■\vili suffijjjfctd their r-- 

Clover, but every species 
of hay, should be well salted- Ail kind of stock will 
r food thus treated, to the hnesi hay 
in its raw state : for the salt assimilating with 
the juices of the hay, prevents, too great a fer- 
mentation, and imparts a superior flavour. Far- 
ther, the saltrng of hay < fit .ctualiy secures it from be- 
coming "overheated' or mildewed in* stacks; so that 
tjxe hay may be p\.u together, without the least 



GRASSES, ICfc 

ger oT firing, in a much greener state than would 
otherwise be safe. 

But oversalttng diminishes the nutriment. More 
than a peck to a ton is injurious. Half that quanti- 
ty is often sufficient. Ten to fifteen pounds b 
ally an ample allowance. 

Fifth. In laying down land to grass, the mixing of 
different grasses is highly to be recommended. Na- 
ture has provided in all permanent pastures a mix- 
ture of various grasses, the produce of which differs 
at different seasons. — Where pastures are to be made 
artificially such a mixture ought to be imitated? 
and, perhaps, pastures superior to the natural ones 
may be made by selecting due proportions of those 
species of grasses fitted fur the soil, winch afford 
respectively the greatest quantities of spiii 
:r.er ; fall and winter produce. 



'the ADVANTAGES of good tillage 



No. xxni. 

There are certain fundamental principles of good 
Village, with which every p.irt of rural practice is 
Xiiore or less connected. They are the same in all 
climates, and in all situations, and these I consider 
to he as follows 5 / 

lirst, That the soil should belaid dry, or (ret of 
all supt -rfiuous moisu. 

Secondly, That it should be kept clean, or free of 
weeds. 

Thirdly, That it should be kept rich— that is to 
say all the manure that can be made or collected,. 
•should be so appli • keep the soil in a state car 

jwible of prod 

, neither the ach 
■Bfeccd 'plouk 

■ 

wht n they 

- 

a suitable t-j 

m^t siate. 

■ 
■ ma- 
-' 
hment, : 
■ cdfe sweet" herbage ; 

: 



TH2 ADVANTAGES OS (WOO TILLAGE^ 

'jriant, noxious wc d-, jr coarse grass} being depi 
ved 01 tlicir no*. | by draining, of course e 

and swtf-t whuleso.; 

\vi hout manure, A\i important principle ofi prattl- 
ed husbandry, is clt .A good I 
must suii r nothing t?o ;iu-v ; &ut h He m 
therei re u^ , tndeuvors 
■ 
Huv.'tvtr small the atte; iioti to t 

max ; m, it pe> 

rations m i. the -a 

gnculturalist~and shoald be tiie pride and boast o£ 
all r< sp< cable husbai 

One being asked- 6 -" l 

repii — l animal sweat" — ;'■ i til!!^e, 

dustry, and iutcil; : :nt i I 

e 
modes of deatr.03 

In the cultv 
crops should be adbptei 

J U I • 

prevent 

I heart* A 
has been I n aj 

!© vei i; 

Tht rapid 
i ■ ■ , ■ 
Va 

■ 
f e 1 

wealth ■ - .^ 

ed from the d,ii d mine, 

not the only cc 

. ttip'3 tten* 

- t .y lijivc Q 



.GE3 op good Tillage 

steady rotation uf crops, the system of trench plough* 
:ng, &c. to this course — and mure fre"quent and deep- 
er ploughi • the fortunate introduction oi red 
clover from 1'lanaeis about ltDO years ago, Kligl 
owes its nt standing as an agricultural na- 
tion." 

All .spots within the inclosure of a farm which are 
too barren or steep lor the cultivation of any kind 
of grain crop, should be laid down into profitable 
grass land so soon as that can be properly at 
plished. A skilful and intelligtnt farmer, in pursu- 
ing a system of good tillage,, should suffer no part 
oi iiisiarm to lie Waste, but should make it produce 
iometbing towards the support of animal life, and., 
thus attain the character which every fanner should 
aspire to, that of bringing the entire surface of his 
farm into the best considered use by prudent and ap- 
propriate cultivation. 

But cur misfortune is, we have too much iaml — 
the consequences, generally speaking, are wretched 
husbandry and half crops ; our farmers push a good 
soil till it is i impoverished, and cultivate in an imper- 
fect manner extensive tracts, a small proportion of 
which, if properly managed, would yield them more 
and belter pro oice. 

ic is nigh time that we s ase to employ la- 

bor in kil ', aad that we should turn our atten- 

tion towards its improveno nt, by cultiv fss at a 

time. By cultivating less laud we shall he enabled 
to do m< ce to it, and labor more 

effectual, and consequently more profitable. We shall: 
till it better, manure itbttt< r, k - p it in b< u-r hearty 
and wh: t to be tfisrvgard take more 

abumbn f >f larfd 

cultivated at a time, ■ leva 

-ply to it, v hat should 
J Jul tillage , and faithiul auvnuring. All -the ops 



rations of agriculture to; • 

■ 

tti (.f the 
, w A- 

rth in it 

i - i has bo 

c! and di 
: him first a i aa -Overplus to 

Ho • 'i-3 of ! 

rrrent, is yet i n of icr 

h is iicvm' yvt 
ha\ 

dupe, in proportion as fai I 

ft!: . • 

the 

an unkn'iv. 

p • •* 

w * a 

j ■''." 

tt v in tla • o ; > n j 5 which '< 

t 

pu . )w< by* tl 

du v : Fertility .and i 

provement, and r: and 

hap **w 






FAGES OF GOOD TILLA* 
•■/. 

No XXIV. 

The difficulty of pro uring manure in sufficient 

quanti'.i . < farmer to u^e it in the 

i economical manner) much ot his manure may 

be saved by good tillage. Ground well tilled will 

bot tak hall the manure for a enp, as ground of 

the s.an.i q- d'fy tilled. There can he no 

ui pulvtrisii g i!k earth in most soils, an- 

I manure in a considerable de- 

M\. lull, who was an ingenious writer on 

rv, carried his thtory so far as to 6 

I -ion uf earth by tillage, would answer 

>e of manure, and that dan, pa- 

rth, and that it is immaterial 

..- is ie by the. plough itastm- 

l -of Kim •" by dung. 

Although I cannot subscribe to this* theory, yet 

f is no doubt but good tillage is ver 

n comb .. manure, gives it a treble 1 

production of crops. J he | 
rh are made, the better ; this " 
v;: constantly experience in our gar< tfjd the 

same ,ov would take place in our fields. The 

r the earth when made fine or pe.f 
res to it, add : great- 
ly to vegetation. It is found that the fine duel 
'in streets, in a dry time, is so impi I with 

nitre, that it will make salt petre. Too much atten- 
tion cannot be given to prepare a field for a crop:;, 
•the finer the earth is made, (a good d more 

dews an 1 salts : + will receive and retaivu U L | 



FHE ADVA;;' G 1 I I LA£E*. 

f nown to farmer*, that the best tilled lands, or those 
laiK'- where the pai;ts are made'* the finest, bear a 
drought much bett-r than ands poorly tilled j and 
thf.btsi pi ugrkd ai . always bears 

a drought best, because it is prepared to iec< ive and 
retain ther ciews and sa ts oj the atmospheric, which 
enri h the land, as well as prom talion, 

I he horizontal roo^s • • t' crop culti- 

vat' d, have s Ldom an\ of lh-n bran cr than 

the plough orspadehas penetrated into .djjl&upl 
the earth. Thes el nnes exteircRnE msi th 

. • ral yards from the main or tap r- ot. Roots by 
k rl off near the ends, increase tin ir num- 
ber, and send out several v, h re one is broken off., 

ots increase their fibre s every time the 

rrecl about them. ; the earth caust s a m 

rapid growth. 

1 cail the inner sup 
soil by art, the artificial 
artificial pasture may >j;ed iur.-h roots of 

out tli • n And, in 

. • •» ro the divi 

isi n maj be carrh d on ^w ill 
Si ■; ; th of on 

to be j 

v is i bvious' enough, ir< pnlvei 

u w i ■ i a'ffo rd to thest i | I ..■ d 

in all directions, a su an re than a tl 

tirn< s greal 

ry time the earth is broken 1 
Jagt , there : - ise uperi 

ken parts, which never have b 

< i tls a i id nr. use to he oust they 

let ii^jy^vhi n pulverized, the d v 

to be impr jrnated through »ui th ce 

With the rich< s carried i b] h as 

the farmer has done ploughing and harrowing, in the 



£10 THE ADVANTAGES OF GOOD TILLAGE, 

Usual m. Jr of culture, the particles of the soil will 

.1 by 
little and little close up, and becoraj impervious to 
the hucr roots oi plants* This will take place^iii a 
gr.attr or less d.give to the depth the plough had 
P n< i idency cannot, it is well k- 

J>e effectually etftmuracted by the use of thu hand 
hoe. K .vi d i » only, scratch hoeing. But the 

plough k magazines of th< earth open, and 

rcpicniihi^w*m ws, which fall rpo3t in 

dry weather, and tj \\s seem to be the richest 

present the aim re gives to the earth, and hav- 

ing when putfified in a Vessel, a black sediment at 
n. Tins se iht dark color of 

I upp> r part of the ground. To. 'emoustrate t:.at 
dew's ■■ . . . dig a nole in the 

ground, r, as deep as 

; ■. h ought to reach, b- nth very line, 

ill the hob , and after a few hi 

^t at 
the bottom, a • • will con- 

dry. O tv me very fine by 

deep ploi 
isufficient lib. - 

iways in the u n ■ g con- 

tinuance,) and foil mi\ find plou n its 

being turned up, moist, the other dry as powder from 
m. 
As fine o long soaked by 

it to become perfectly* 
ts which i and 

whilst th ist in 

them as t 
■ . ■ - 

n . . 

; t, and therefor- 






- r hoe tlu ' 

T!i t one more b 

-roughly and I le in 

i 

an .: drink, at i. If 

yon give an animal 3 to no pur 

unless you could give it m . which is im- 

; i-hle ; but i " and round a 

plant the additional n< | iven, ena- 

I out addition . ; s and 

roots, whi h fully demon Urates, that a plant increa- 
ses its n; • p rti n to thr increase of 
a to it. If it be asked, how many pknigh- 
tre necessary ? I r — it is not th: num- 
ber of ploughings that its th • degrees of pul- 
verization. For one well done is twice done ; aiul 
the oiVner the belter, if convenient. Poor land 
should have the most ploughings ; because plants re- 
ceiving very little nourishment from the natural pas- 
ture of such land require the more artifi ial pasture 
to subsist upon. 

Columella relates a story finely illustrative of 'the 
advantages of g od tillage, which, though short as 
it is, contains a Volume of instruction. 

"A certain P.uidius had two daughters and a 
planted with vines. Of this farm h 
third part as a marriage portion, «.o the mi i who wed- 
ded his eldest daughter, and notwit! ceiv- 
ed as' much produce as before, from the two thirds 
h he reserved to himself. Afterwards, on the 
of the younger daughter,] aw y th;; 
half of the remaining lajid, and found his income 
still in no respect diminished. V. ' •. he 
I '? But tl • ' of the farm 

10 



&*-2 PLASTBB OF PARJ3. 

it length better cultivated than the whole used to be 
before. 

Abf ut two hundred years since, great efforts were 
made in France to revive the arts of husbandry. — 
The Flemings, about the same time, made similar 
efforts. They epdtavored to conceal from their 
jieighbors, their discoveries and improvements — 
They reduced the quantity of arable land, increased 
.their manures; ploughed deeper and oftmer, and kept 
their till ige grounds perfectly clean like gardens* — 
They soon found that ten a;.res of grourd, well ma- 
nured and well cultivated, would yield more than 
forty acres by their previous mode of cultivation. 



PLASTER OF PARIS, 



No xxv. 

This. valuable manure, when first introduced inte 
Agricultural use, met with great opposition in the pre- 
judices of farmers ; but its great and beneficial ef- 
fects upon almost all kind ot grain and grass crops, 
have in en so fully established by the experience of 
thousands, that it is now eagerly sought after and 
used in every part of the country where its valuable 
properties art knew n, and it can be obtained. Its 
u c e in agricultural purposes is now rapidly i xtend- 
ing, and no better proof of the improvement, of any 
agricultural district can be wanting, than the evi« 
deuce of a free use of Plaster of Paris— In propor- 
tion as agriculture and interior navigation are- pro- 
moted, so will the use of this substance extend, un- 
til the time will arrive when it will be generally used 






FLASTER Of^ PA-fflca tjfi 

in every part of our wide spread country. May we 
not, in the improvement of our rivers, speedily loots 
for the introduction of this valuable substance am >:i£ 
rue farmers of North Carolina^ They sureb 
no longer withhold from their use this great auxiii« 
arv to their agricultural pn ? With the view 

of encouraging its in trod action among us, tl 
ing information is giv< i( by way of di 
use. This infon ..... ii bting 

the result of the experience of the best farm : 

of our country who have used the Planter on an e«> 
tensive sale, for a number of years in different 
and climates. 

S^tiery 1. What soils are the most proper for 
manure 1 

Arts. The soils most proper for this maniir 
Warm, kind, loam) 7 ones; land that is gen 
deemed good wheat land — that will sink the water 
quick in winter — land not too level — land that taker, 
iime well, will take the Plaster — high ground and 
sandy soils — a sandy loam— poor sandy river land. 
It does better on hilly than level land, perhaps be- 
cause it is dry and lighter. Its effects are good on 
every kind of dry gravelly spots and on soils that 
are stony and thin. On land inclined to be wet, l n 
a cold day, and on a fiat white clay, the Plaster 
not succeed. The soil called a loam, not »v~r stiff, 
is most favorable to the Piaster. 

~\i u ' n J -• What quantity per acre has generally 
used ? 

Arts, It is difficult to fix the requisite quantity. 

As much effect has been produced from a half to 
two bushels to the acre, as from tour to six, when. 
season and other favorable circumstances combined. 
It hgwever may he presumed, that the quantity of 
Plaster may be regulated by the quantity of vegeta- 
ble matter or the fermentable putrifying subsu i m 



* "lich to operate, II 

what 

., 

It tht gK : Q 

■ 

- 

iw I 

. Li? 

'trally used most profitably for white 
: ; thoi .. improve any kind of. 

I teh the Piaster has I 
h better than u> 
icrcd — and cattle love to pasture on them better. — 
. tcr it is in the spring when ve- 
abioad. On Clover, it is sown 
lroir. ] . [ay, and improves red clever 

e as the latter month. It has 

e after mowing the r>> st crop, 
As clover Seed i sown 

pxing or put in with I 

is, as soon as 
is off, as it gives a go h to 

. lover Ik; -.-inter sets in, which is apt to' 

: t :. -ct of Piaster on red clc* 
Q 0:1 any other crop v, hatev, 
. . \t I en n 
ofi la; really clover t 

sings ■ • ... 

average oi two a 
half tons per acre for stvei 

?o what kind oi grain crops can il 
H orl, m v 



-XL ASTER CI PARIS. 11 J 

JArts The immediate benefit of Plaster to Indian 
corn is vastly greater than to any other crop, clover 
"excepted, whilst its benefit to the land is equally 
great. Unplastered spaces across large fields oi 

• corn have been frequently visible during the whole 
Crop, producing not an equal, but a considerable dif- 
ference in inferiority. Hulling Plaster bushel for 
bushel with Indian seed corn, has an admirable ef- 
fect on the crop. The manner and time of applying 
it to benefit the corn crop are different, in different 
places — sowing it just in advance of the plough, 
when fallowing for corn, on land well covered with 
vegetable matter — sowing it broadcast among the 
Indian corn after it is up — strewing it on the plant 
and hill when the corn receives its first dressing — * 
and rolling it with seed; strewing a table spoonful 
on each plant or hill when the corn receives its first 
weeding — and rolling it with the seed (i; being madt, 
very wet) bushel for bushel ; are all practised with 
great success. The -effect of the -Plaster on small 
grain crops is not very great; on spring or summer 

.grain, such as barley and oats, it has however the 
best effect by rolling it with the s-.-ed when sown. — 
Although the wheat crop is less benefited immediate* 

'Ay than any other, yet the rolling of the wheat bush* 
el to bushel with the Plaster, facilitates the vegetation 
of the clover sown on the surface in the spring, and 
strengthens it against summer drought, so frequently 
fatal to it in coarse soils ; and by thus improving the 
fertility of the land, considerably augments succeed- 
ing crops. 

§>uery. 5. Has the application of it been repented 
"with or without ploughing? With other manure, 
and what? and, the eifects, if any, superior to tfee 

^•Piaster alone ? 



. Except when sown on clover, the Piaster has* 
Keen found to succeed best when covered or work- 
ed into the earth. It is the g. pinion that tht 
Piaster should have some-thing, to iced or optrate on. 
A cover of vegetable litter produced by inclosing, or 
a clover lay wt 11 turned in, the piaster having been 
previously sown thereon, or any animal or vegetable 
putrifving substances in the earth, afford it a fit pa- 
bulum to operate on. 'I he Plaister operates m re 
powerfully when in connection with vegetable or ani- 
mal substances, and increases the effects, of coarse 
ire considerably; hence one of the best modes 
of using it, is sowing it on and ploughing it in with 
coarse litter. By applying manure with, preceding, or 
after the Plaster, the land will in less time be much 
more productive. When ploughed into the earth, 
. et is not so likely to be destroyed by exces- 
sive moisture or drought, as when 'Sprinkled on the 
ce . 

ery 6. In consequence of its repeated applica- 

•. soii, is j . u (J that it renders the ^ai.h 

:, useful effects' are gone . ? 

Ans. There is no greater degree of sterility after 

r, th^n af^e-r dung, ures are sti 

and leave liie ear: i pid, from the ex- 

r re- 
.1! kept in constant culture, 

- y appl) ihg putrif; 
1 Plas- 

ter to and actual experience has tes- 

l 

suitable for its application; nor is 
whatever on the subject o 



i 



• P vs. 

try 7. Does it operate immediately on its be 
ing applied to the soil ? And wftafi is its dm utility ? 
/to. The Plaster when applied to some soils does 
not operate for several years, and then shews itselt 
in a luxuriant >n ot red or white clover, or 

some other grass. As to its durability upon the 
soil, it benefits land or crops longer than duwg \wtn~ 
out restriction of quantity. Its permanency howe- 
ver, is not always uniform, owing, perhaps, either to 
the nature of the soil, the difference in Seasons- or 
the goodness r. Wheq it throws up 

gentle and m< d p&, "its efficacy is of the lon- 

gi st duration., if it is violent in its first operations 
il i , oi short continuance. It has sometimes exhaus- 
ted itself in one year; front a dressing of three or 
i'( ur bushels, it ha b I fitt'd lane. 
Perhaps the scattering it ., or ev< 

year, i i small poi . It ngth of 

vent v iol ru . — ■ 

VV1 re it has been sown in this \y 
>buvincd I I I tt 



218 
3 I) CLOVER 

No. X.VVl. 

Red Clover is too valuable to need an euloguiir^ 
In every good svstem of agriculture, particularly in 
a system ol improve ment, Clover is. absolutely ne- 
cessary, as forming the basis of the whole, as with- 
out which, no valuable plan of cultivati n c «n be 
pursued. The many thousands of acres of worn or 
exhausted land in the different pans of North- Caro- 
lina, testily to the total and shameful neglect in the 
people of cultivating this valuable grass. Clover, 
aided by inclosing, together with gypsum and deep 
ploughing, is able to convert sterility into fruitful- 
ness, and scanty crops into those thr most abundant* 
In every part of the United States where the soil is 
in a high state of improvement, Clover is extensive- 
ly cultivated, and is acknowledged to be the principal 
agent in effecting these improvements*. I am p-r- 
-suaded that those who have lands susceptible of im- 
provement, could not.iay out their money to so go >d 
an interest as in the purchase of Clover seed ; as 
their money would soon be reimbursed treble or qua- 
druple fold in the rapid improvements which would 
be effected on their farms by meaes of the Clover. — 
Clover when well put in >n a good soil, and ha\i g 
a top dressing of plaster of two bushels to the acre, 
will afford the first year three tons of good hay to 
the acre, the se ond year it may be cut once and af- 
terwards pastun d to the middle of October, the third 
-year i* will afford excellent pasture to hogs, sheef) 
ami mil- h c ws during the summer, and in Septem- 
ber may b< turned under. It is the best pasture for 
raising healthy stock of every kind. Cattle, &e* 






v zing on it will be fatter tli 

..Tliiiii on ;»iiy o 

ch< . 

ptrior fia\ our and , pure 

- 

■ 
.. 
\v.:. ; 

.: the v : ...;;„,. v.' . 

and permuted to lie six hoars in tin 
ii to horses, will pv 

But it is when p; 
stock ; ; 
. hills on a i> 
suitable to raise timothy ; and the r; 
tiy to be pi 

J is Sv . 
mproving land speedily^ it 
- Glover i cut or grazed, in 

li.sy exti 
tity or v 

r- 
. it. 

t to be i 

acn 
by I, 

■ 
large to mow on 

is single, ch< 

. a puree 1 tw to mi:. • 

• wing manner. Let the Jay 

cut, la; ith ; Us i 



1 20 RED-CLOVER. 

'deposited ; then at the bottom put down a layer of 
the straw six inches thi k ; then another layer of 
clover twelve inchesthick, and so on with straw and 
clover alternately, until it is all finished. I have ne- 
ver seen any moulded or muw hurnt when put away 
in this manner. 

Horses and cattle are -fonder of the straw (when 
imbibed with the juices oi the Clover) in the win- 
der, than Of th best timothy hay that can be offered 
th- cially if n little brine is sprinkled oveY the 

straw at the time of stacking it away ; by managing 
at in this way, the color and smell of the Clover in 
winter will be equal to any hay : and horses have 
been known to leave the green grass in midsummer 
and eat the hay thus prepared, in preference- Clo- 
ver should be cut for hay when the blossoms are 
burning of a brown hue and are beginning to seed. 

Considering Clover as necessary to the best plan 
of conducting a farm, it is the duty of every r al 
friend to this necessary science, to promote the cul- 
tivation of it. A great obstacle to the propagation 
of this valuable err ss, arises from the high price of 
the seed, owing to the trouble oJ gathering and the 
dit'H ultv of cleansing it. Could this difficulty be 
obviated, Clover seed might be sold at a much less 
price than is now demanded for it. The following 
plans of gathering and cleaning the seed, are practis- 
ed in the spates of Pennsylvania and New York, 
where they have long been in the habit of raising 
seed for sale. When clover is kept for seed, it m 
Stand till the beads are very brown, or until qi 
of the fiild has changed its color by the dryness of 
:tie Clover heads; youthen begin to collect them, 
which is done by a machine invented at Brookhaven, 
in StuTolk county, New York. It is drawn by a 
'horse and guided by a man or boy, who will collect 
itirofB the -field by this means, the heads of clover 



BED CLOVER, 2C | 

growing on five acres in one day. This machine is 
of simple construction ; it is nothing more than an 
open box of about four feet square at the bottom, 
and ah- ut two feet high on three sides, one part, 
which we may call the lore part, is open; on this 
part is rW-.d fingers similar to the fingers of a cradle, 
about three feet long, and so near together as to 
break off the heads from the clover stacks, which 
are taken between those fingers ; the heads are 
thrown back into the- box as the horse walks on.—. 
The box is fixed on an axletree, supported by two 
small wheels of about two feet diameter ; two han- 
dles are fixed to the box behind, by which the man 
or boy, at the same time he guidts the horse, lowers 
or raises the fingers of the machine so as to take off 
an the heads from the clover: as often as the box 
.gets full of heads, they are thrown out, and the horse 
goes < n again All the heads of Clovt r, in what man- 
ner soever collected, ought to be put into small heaps 
oy corks, of the quantity of about the bigness otahtrge 
corn basket, in the field, and there exposed, that the 
may rot (which « fleet will take place according 
to the state of the weather as respects heat and mois- 
ture) otherwise it will be very difficult to get out 
the seed. Some attention ought to be paid to these 
heaps or cocks Irst they shr>uid rot too much next 
the ground ; i< will sometimes be necessary, in case 
of, much rain, to turn the heaps; by rubbing the 
head* in your hand it mav easily be perceived when 
the husk i sufficiently rotten. 

Whenever it is found that the heaps are sufficient- 
ly rotted and dry, they are carted into the barn, and 
whenever ir is found convenient, the seed is thresh- 
ed out on the barn flo - and .leaned with a wire 
riddle, The other plan is, aft :r the hay is threshed 
tii? heads oi the clover are put into a hogshead, to 



ar.tity tff wafer to mow* 
jr to induce a fermentation.-*-? 
t to this critical 
the fer n to pi 

: the capsules of chaif, without 
fUr this n, the 1 1 

heads i>r to dry, when a 

threshing easily extricates U:e st 

Ci -ver seed ; s sown in diffen nt quantities, accr- 
. ding to the richn t soil, and the use that is 

intended to be made of the Clover. 

If seed is to bt d from the first crop, the 

r seed, from four to six pounds to the a re, is 
gener u with the wh at on lands able to pro- 

duce irom eight to twj lyt bi shels b) thr acre. r l he 
Clover on such lands be top thick to pro- 

duce seed from the first crop but standing tolerably 
th i n on i h e g r o . \ p d , the h t a c! s w s I i b e w ■ i 1 i • fi 1 le d with 
seed, 1: ad be rich and you mean to mow 

the first crop, and collect seed from the second, from. 
twelve to sixteen pounds is not too much to put 
to an ace. Sixteen pounds or more on winter 
has been thought bv many farmers not to be 
too much per '.icr^^ and a less gtiantiti en spring 
grain. A t< p g is of great bent fit to clover, 

if sown over it early in the spri. stifT spils^ 

50Qt is the best ; on light lands the Plaster 
If ai v of these are sown over it ever s<? 
fhin, it will nearly drwhl 



ss 



WHEAT. 



No. XXVH • 

Wheat, the most yal f all vegetables, Was. 

Tbrought into America by tl . -ettlers, and 

been cultivated with success^ • .. 

nient of the country. F r i i as been 

$he staple of the middl stat s and bids fair to bo- 
. me that of the south', r ,- pf N, 

Carolina, as soon as the na\ 
effected. The states of Mai 

have, long since, exchanged part of tl. ceo 

at; and in N< rib C.ir 11 a, we may 
e look for its substitution for tub: 
as thuse obstacles which have hitherto p .;. its 

vatijn for market, shall i 
Wheat and flour have always c . 
| portion of the exports of 
years since 1^803, the amount ei 

.. d annually | I .teen m . 

~Th West Iridic*, Spa h, Poriu al and G. 
Britain hav the principal consurr. 

tides. 1 t India Islands Have 

a market for a 1. . u of th 

in times in Great Britain, and in t i- 

v them parts of Eur States h 

in competiti n witr 
of Eun pe. As the sod and c; 

ry I to the c\l- 

tiv [I no dou 

-most important staple crops, .as soon as the navij 



i - 

transl- 
ation to 
$?j thesj . s iious, I | :, that it 

d not b< . s of this 

. to detail th cultivating wheat, 

event or escape those 
i e r I . 

:ceiyc s no rnorec.ui- 
- is committed to the earth, tht l 
icr'itsr.. , should b^f ought into a 

i elfect this, manuring and 
re are indispensable. When thest have b< L n 
judiciously applied to be hi a loo.se> 

mellow and fertile sta^e, and possessing such a < 
of ti, , to presurvc 

this state, 

AU farmer^ nade the experiment, 

, that o»e~acre well nvmiired and prepared, will 
p$odue« more wheat than twe 

little or no manure or have been badly 
iki teach us -to cultivate 
pr^epare it better, and thereby -makr more - 
clant to cultivate a larger quantity more 

el make h ss. 
'I : h ; es to be attended to in the 

culti\ I wheat maybe summed up under three 

nuring, deep ploughing and . sha .low- 
ing. 
To insure a good crop of wheat, in fact, the founda- 
tion of its success must depend on dop pi bug 
and I might with strict propriety extend tnis remark to 
every other grain crop in cultivation among us. The 
roots of wheat will penetrate four feet of tilth and 
of corn will which in 

removing every objection against deep ploughing, 
ahouid at the same time convince us ot its greaS 
I it jr. 



• great d 
erf wh 

to our <l. ■ 

- 

: 
crops in pq'mi oJ 
deep I 

coronal r 
lurfac 

ever.ii I h 

fallow cr< . ■ 

the grn-un 

■ put m in 

?.<>t m.tnn 
; .n^ if in • 

itvuch a '. 
the m . 

I 
crops \nA alsr 
., 

' rwrd un 
trong team ; 

the injury of the crop, 
; sod r in August or 

>d the v 
surface shout* 

for *he reception ■ ed and at the time ol 

ja£ the seed should be harrowed in* \ preat a 

. harrowing in grain, is, I 
your field is prepared for seeding-, vou can n. 
sow and harrow in your seed; and have the c 
o f we . . j c e s .; w h i e h t h e 

tedious process of plousr,hing»ip your see*] wou 1 

i%» St*ai*#e as it may appear to some, yet it h&# 



I 
. ' t > i i 3 

led to have the ploughing 
to prepare good 
crops (\i 
rh arc wc'l cah-w. 
at; as the c 
x n\y bv ■ - >ii into a 

■ ft eption of 
r,t cr..p /or this 
tt^ s also a; iwer 

this 
dlimate, 1 v remark S f r«p.— 

. Taykrs p;ati.of cnuivu;h>g ItkU ■ . ) vid- 

pe -. has b- - 
be«.n - . <d in si 

1 and 

a large crop this ] the labor 

cannot be s on the 

and in ieavi after being 

oil mu( part of 

the wheat crop . : v n a- 

- the stand tag c: m. To : 
plough: • •■ . perly— 

■■.rth meet id the coru — vo plough 

deep and cover the v, heat shadow-- deep 

and wide water furro • je objects' to be . 

drd to ; the h'-.s should Uj^.^ the ploughs on! 
the purpose cf chopping the few spois in The I'm: of 
the corn remaining uncovered and hanging to the 

s the ears that may be br( keti off. The best in- 
strument for tig in wh at in hL manner is 
the trowel hoc plough with fefcie'ra I xt to 
<ha corn- the boltOfffc-'ftl t&e mould board should be 



Jalaed three inches above the eye of the trowel hoe, 
for the purpose of ploughing the ground deep and 
covering the wheat shallow. 

Wheat sown on high ridges will have a tendency 
to roll 4own into the water lurrows war re there is 
the least remedy tins a trowel hoc with 

double mould board (one on each side) should be 
run in each wat r furrOw to throw out the wheat and 
make them deep and wide. Where the grout) 

fid free of grass, the wheat may be \ 
put in with a five jtootfi coulter harrowbto be follow^ 
ed by a straight tooth dragor.hat; 

In wet low gron : i be thrown into 

seyen feet bed gle horse bareshare or dagon 

'ring in the whuat up Vj I with a light 

furrow, and followed by a straight tooth drag orhar- 
row and f furrows afterwards opened deer 

' I " f he best mode-. 



(2ft 

Xo. ■xxvm. 

Having in a former number stated the btsi mod'.* 
of cultivating Wheat, I now proceed, as proposed;, 
to detail the means to he used to escape or prevent 
those calamus to which it is subjects 

"These are rust or mildew, smut, the Hessian fTy 
2nd weavi'h 

1 he rust or mildew, proceeds from repletion or 
from the extravasation* of the' juice of the plants, 
diied by the sun: on the stalks. 

This extravasation is caused by a sud'deri obstruc- 
tion or the juice of the plants, cwirg to a very cool 
night, prt'etued by several days arfti nights of very 
Warm weather. By a continued heat, the earth is 

. cd to a gre^at degiee, and all nature invi; 
td-— this occasions a great ascem of the juices, so 
hat t\'~ry $e&&e} isjfull (as in ar. animal oi a lull o? 
plethoric h.tbit, v. hen i tbeffi is the most dan- 

ger of the vessels bursting) a sudden cold ensuing 
at this ciitic: .1 season p"hiHs r tht it .^particu- 

larly in it* slenderest parts, and there brings on a 
. But .the earth being deeply warmed 1 f 
rng ix> soon as the 
stalV, conti ne violent tscetit oi the juices as 

\i there 1-e any obstruction or stoppage 
i d in the slej f the stalk, \vh«t 

xriust. \yl • ' ce of this but an 

. xu . a <^i that the vessels burst I 

■ ¥ * Bj ex:. • act oi the juice Sewing cr being 



•It >:.j been ascertained, by'lonsj expe-' 
observation, that mildews cr rust always come 
-cool nights alter inter.se and continued he ich 

n cold, succeeding heat, every one ki ! occa- 

sion a great dew, And this is n the reas 

why this rust has been ascribed to the dew, end caf- 
meldew or mi ich ' 
Another tact which-- confirms tivs hvpothe*" 
this : thai 'be thin leaves and slender of' the 

3talk are fir^t affected^ 'hence first appeal" 

on 'he stalk just btl< \ here the stalk being 

the smallest, and the yt .is the first 

the chill, ::s nought cted — A 

ace just below this, the first eruption appears? 

•ar;d so 1 i 

the whole, and entirely ruins the grain if not already 
filled. 

It is another well known fact, th. md in new 

nttUrements, or ¥ h fresh land, 

is much kss exposed to mildews, th. n old fields I 

• i ' ■• 
son of this is plain upon tl | tutlg 

ipS are known to 
er degree of heat than ■ , if 

ge quanti i ung* particular lyin a fr\ 

be applied to land ( wheat crop to be grown i 

medial .it uili 

i'i all pi 

Because it must occasion, acco- the. 

sis, a more violent ascent of the j u , the 

ilk will !;e propqi dan^erof burst- 

ing, and of an lion of trK jurces, upon a. 

sudden chili - alk. 

thef t\ct comm 
grounds are not so exposed to mild 
Jl he ;v isons are plain upon this 
eesause there is not so much difference betwee:; 



J? HE AT. 

v/eathet* in day and night en high grounds, a3'in the 

n of the aft 

in high iand, i .vent the stag- 

nation of the Knees —-Up. . nciple too, an high 

wind may prevent the mildew, and accordingly they 
are never known to come in a windy night, though 
cold. The wind by ke< pihg i ,u uiy 

xn motion, prevent a b 5 g.w.t. ioa of the juices; in 
like manner, the blood never becomes sta^ria 
any part ot the bo.dy when it is kept constan 

II is upon thi3 principle, that we can ao 
eount for the reason, why 1: is recommended in Eng-' 
£and, ^o keep a stretched roue constantly moving 
ov-.r the ri'ids of wheat, when the stat wea- 

ther is such a te an apprehension of their be- 

to mild< 
Or, if rust . .v is produced by a com! 

'.ion of hear, moisture, shallow ploughing, mid a flat 
he remedy is the same under either 
sition. 

is re J inea*y consists in 'deep ploughing, high 
• wide wat-.; . i .will 

le of culture the Te verse of that 
o genera:, cd wheat with the rust or 

ew. 
The high narrow ridge? dissipate or scatter the 
intense heat of the sun, which a flat sin lace v 
increase; and the deep wide watei - serve to 

drain the ridges of their superfluous moisture, (so 
as completely to prevent a stagnation of the 

it the foots of the, to them) and 

>n of air through the wheat! 

s and furrows therefore answer the valua- 

< heat and moisture, which 

oi' the disease, and vi~ 

ay add to the ca: 

pi the (plant to jrtsisv the malady. 



WHEAT 



• injurious effects ol fre^h dung mav 
avoided by applying it to Indian coi Itpw crop 

for whtntj by the time the com prop finishes its 
growth, |he manure will be in* 

cent and mild sta e t'c ;owa 

on tl d, to which i 

Cui Oi w I>t ;; : 

; 

lildc ws '; the . 
vnat 

sula between e ajul S 

nuing to sow tb< 

tivat- wh$at. A 

bttlP ' r t 

which nr 

of Juh. 

that rata* 

be v.- 

riu- c r ,p, ;.• -prrvv ;•: ■ : . 

. 
- set up ill sheai 
the It e i.vi- 

triment which the stalk ntay i 

Wheat ci ops in England hai h rut 

in tmir milk- tt the grain has.been found to 

mature, aid ahv;; rd a fine ski autlful 

sample. This fact has been asserted by •< rican 
and British agriculturalists, and further s«J*e<i by 
i, that by such car . on 

the first appearance Idew, yon may a va- 

le, though hot an abundant crop; the sap lA the 
stains continuing- its natural course, to the h« .-aJs ) 



whereas if the same grain remained uncuif, the seeds' 
Would he shriveile i, and often give chaff only in 
gf flour* - 

H;\v -a this to he accounted f t? Upon the same 
• cause of mildew is ac- 
for. 
stalks ni grain "heing m their roots, 

the source of the malady is cut off; 
the stalks are nojott 
ance of sap ascending fi 
Cease t i I. cvivf J ' 

the wide breaches in 

was nisi - 

:s ^further aid 
) pursues its , i 

j^rain. 
Ray grass that j • n while in blossom, v well 

5 with the sa| Ibdfj- 

e 8trrn> 

•ifTrmation of this 
d, will h 

ree vvveta 
i b%for -.. rip , [ stalks be set 

ng the fences. IL nee 

..heat or otht-r 

ripe ; and it may also be 

which is cut while underripe, is 

-ed in the fi Id by moist wea- 

fcher, ith tat* stood until it be -fully over* 



V H g A T. 
Con 

The smut of grr.in is " ■•/ distinguisfiect by the 
' ack dust which covers the c ningty 

rinkled with soct : whereas the mildew or rust in- 
U s;s tiie stern and kaves with yellow and dark brown 
to, or with a diisx of au p&aitge colour. On exa- 
mining the smutty cars ot wheat, some grains will 
be found 6<>und, while tlu been reduced to 

ch;<r7 and others small and /< d. By i 

the infected grain with wai ■•{ adap- 

ted to the purpose, to which is rapid c. 

motion, theyniay bt wh | resteer of the si 
; ,t ivlvu when the % smut is so glutinous as not to be 
thus washed off, an equal quanlr ^and should 

be used with the water, to cleanse it more effectu- 
) and much use'nl grain preserved, whldi when 
dried anfl s ->v/n, an ^xp:-ri need farmer) led, 

produced a mod. rate crop and pel r e from 

smut. The smut is s led 

grain, as rye or barley, it being mostly predominant 
in wheat; e in the smooth 

get in late harvest. Like t 1 w, it \i> 

i !ent in low gi in a damp or f.\g- 

gv season; but never pi 
g. s as th 

and grasses. The time of blooming i 
period at whir.h tiv smut begins to sell and 

then procev , the ear into 

ehafif or preventing the ?;j raui coming to malum* • 
Means ot prevention : 



Mafce choice of the best seed wheat. '-Fhis is tc 
•be dons at harvest by selecting that pari of the crop 
which ripened earliest, which contained the largest 
and bes- filled heads and'the soundest and plumpest 
grain; it i-< only in this way that any preferred spe- 
cies of wb< a:, can be preserved or improved. A 
I vs also recommended as an effectual 
is oi preventing the smut and -other diseases to 
h wheat is liable. In the Netherlands, perhaps 
one of th. wheat countries in Eurppe, chang- 

- he seed is regularly and systematically attended 
In Engl , changing the seed of all their 

culfniferous/^r ry three or four years 

is consid Trd us highly beneficial* I- is here to be 
observed that wheat and all other culmilerous grains 
were or'^inatly much ' to what they are at 

present ; that they wi re fii heir wild 

state • defective in'regard to quality and pro- 

duce, and that by cultivation and iunh ,r selection, 
tftey have etn improved to their present standard 
. r lection. 
If, therefore, they af y cultivated, I 

would . 11 a^ai'i d . r ori- 

:CV tO 

n i i are liable to be. 

vated on the 

. by [ice of the jusi . thes< re- 

* ears 
fro pod, countt ot ist:ic ; . — 

roperlv in ■ increase 

the qna- 

mes l^ss liable to disease, 

from ear- 

s t i*i n in the same neigh- 

seed 



"WHEAT. IS 5 

wheat with each other every three or four years, in- 
stead of cultivating the same t iv on ti.eir 
farms, they would find an advantage in it. 

As the smut has been considered by many writers 
as very infectious, and tl seed will uni- 

formly and almost inevitably produce an infected or 
smutty crop, variou n rccoir.m nded 

for the prevention of this disease. 13y st< e d 

yu teat, we have an opportunity of scumming off all 

lit or shrivelled grains which fl >at on the surface, 
preserving lor seed all the sound and he; vy 
grams which invariably sink to the bottom ot the li- 
q id in which they arc steeped. 

i :, th. father oi! the drill husbandry that 

a ship load offbeat was s'tmk near Bristol^ in au- 
tum - and afterwards at ebbs, all taken up; but be- 
ing unfit for tl At 

■the To" s , ail th wheat in ] 

smutty, of this briued^.^d, Mr. 

Richard P. Barton, <d Frederick-county, V'a. rel ; 
thai in i 805. s-mv wheat w, 

to esc! vd having pi. 

tw • bushc 1 
then silted on it lime as would ad- 

re to it. Tw i ired s«<m 

me whea 
, and th< - r, and in 

good time. Mr. ^arton's en ft was free Froiti smut, 
at the foil the crops of the other 

two I 

Mr. J >h Roberts, author of the Pennsylvanh 
mer, has also pr< ved the utility of steep seed 

I experi- 

ment, 
with c the backwardness and 



want of vigor in the wheat in this strip, compared 
With the rest of the field, was so apparent as I 
dis trictly visible. He further observes, that se\ 
of his neighbors had tiicd the same steep, and were 
so convinced of its utility, as to induct them to con- 
tinue the practice. When seed whe.at is n.ih d in 
plaster oi Paris, it should previously be soaked in 
strong brine, 01 the plaster mixed with the brine.—- 
By this means, it retains moisture much longer tnan. 
when mixed with water, and the wh» at tonus up 
quicker and better, particularly in a dry season, 
Which is a great advantage. In the Netherlands, 
OUe of the great wheat countries of Europe, chang- 
ing the seed and steeping in the following prepara- 
tion, has never been known to fail. Dissolve three 
ounces and two drachms of copperas cr blue vitriol 
in three gallons and three quarts (wine measure) of 
cold water, for every three bushels of grain. 

As to the Hessian fly, which has committed such 
extensive ravages among the wheat cre>ps in this 
country, a knowledge of the means to be used to pre- 
vent or escape its ravages, would no doubt be highly 
acceptable to the agricultural community* I will en- 
deavor to give this information as far as I 
bled. The Hessian fly commits its ravages by d po- 
siting an egg or maggot on the wheat, which is al- 
ways to be iound between the lowest part of the leaf 
of the wheat, and the part which forms the main 
stalk or straw, and to the latter of which, that b to 
bay, the stalk, it closely adheres, and is generally 
within the outside leaf, so as to lie as near th 
cs possible. Wh n thus adhering to the stalk of 
the what, it lives or derives its nourishm 
that kind of wheat which is the yqung< st am 
Lio-; delicate straw-. The manner in which the 

is by sucking it, it 
not appear to possess any faculty oi corroding or 



AT. 12./ 

eating away the solid part of the straw ; as it growa 
larger, its whole body indents the straw and 
vents the ris~ of the sap, and the grain either falls 
down, or perishes before it has grown fo be of anJT 
height. 

I am confident in saying, that when the soil is rich 
or in g jo i heart, when it has been well pfeparca, 
and sown tolera >ly late in the fail with 
wheat, there is littie or no cause to apprehend the 
s of the flv. 

The re isons in support of this assertion, are ths 
folio wi i 

The fly generally attacks the wheat which is - 
sown; a grafter quantity of them appearing 
the hist of August and first of Septemb r, than at 
any other period in the fail : hence the necessity oE 
sowing late, to escape their ravages in the fall. — « 
n > doubt lodge and deposit as many of tneir 
egs^s or skippers in the luxuriant growth as they do 
in that of a slow growth, or d eat ; bui ih.it 

on a rich fertile soil, and well put m, if the sh 
injured in the fall by the egg being d< in : r. 

it will send forth fresh shoots from the main root, 
and thereby live during the fall and winter; and it 
<3h p sited in the spring of the year, in wheat or a 
luxuriant growth, it will grow so fast as t.i be 
to discard the egg or skipper from between the blade 
and s*alk ; or be able to afford a redundancy of juice, 
for the production of the fly, over and above what is 
necessary to keep up its growth. - 

Whilst on the other hand, wheat (hat is sown on 
poor or sterile land and badly put in, is always back- 
ward and easily penetrated by the fly ; and, instead 
of growing, declines away, whilst trie fly is sucking 
the sap out of the stalk, and for want of proper nou~ 
rishment from the soil, is unable to throw out any 
new shoots in lieu of the one injured by the fly.— 



v. 



• -narks, we discover the necessity of 
having wheat larul in good heart and well prepared, 
in order to escape the ravages of theflv. The Ara- 
:h is a valuable authority o.n all agricultural 
wing t-xci rpropriate 

I y : 
"The ?. le understood, as to 

• the loss of ' 
rom had tillage. Lands are tired by snailow 
are, or by being prevented from 
rating themselves with vegetable substances, 
the rich st bottom lands are subject to weari- 
n and sometimes are said to have grown lousy, 
rt they will cease at length to yield good corn ; 
the crop has the appearance of being infected by 
To such causes are owing most of the char- 
■-ought against the Hessian fly, They would 
• vd by manuring the land with good clover 
lays, and by deep ploughing, in the cultivation of the 
maize or of any other fallow crop, or by managing 
naked fallows in the same way. At least, my expe- 
rience has never furnished me with a single instance, 
in which a cr^Pjp of wheat has suffered by any insect, 
when the land was in heart and well covered 
dry vegetable matter, when that matter »vns turned 
under as deep as four horses in <\ plough could do 
it, when the land had received a second good plough- 
ing by two horses in a plough, and when the v 
was seeded on high and narrow ridges, with a clean 
farrow." 

Bearded wheat is not so liable to be attacked by 
the fly as the smooth-eared sort, from the following 
circumstances: it branches more than any of the 
smooth sort, in this respect approximating to the 
progress of rye in its growth ; it has a much smal- 
ler blade, more compact fibre, a small hard stalk, 
With very little hollow, which renders it harder of 



TUkSiPfc. 139 

penetration, and the smallness of the blade does not 
defend theifl as web as a lar^c one ; and lastly, the 
smalln ss of the hollow pjr events them from buryirg 
themselves as easily as in a large hollow. As to 
the weavil, they are certainly avoided, by getting 
the wheat out early, throwing it up in the chaff, or 
cleaning it and depositing it in dry airy places under 
shelter. 



TURNIP,?, 






As the cultivation of Turnips upon an extensive 
scale, as well lor the feeding of cattltv during the 
Winter monihs, as for culinary purposes, may and 
ought to become an interesting object to the citizens 
of the United Slates, the following observations are 
offered, as comprehending its most improved modes 
of culture : 

The Turnip delights in a light, sandy loam; if a 
little moist the better, especially in Warn* climates. 
Upon new or fresh gro/md they are always sweeter, 
than on an old or worn out soil. Though such is 
the kind of land best adapted to the raising of tur- 
nips, yet they are cultivated upon every sort of soil 
in use as arable land. 

ien of the sandy soil now laying waste in various 
parts of the union, might, with the assistance, or cul- 
ture and a small portion of manure, be profitably 
en^Ioyed in producing turnips; for such ground, if 

* 2 



140 TtffcHlPS. 

dressed with a light coat of clay or loam, would yield 
ex- client crops of this vegetable. 

The ground intended for the production of turnips 
ensuing season, ought to be deeply ploughed 
in October or November, and to be left in that rougli 
state to receive the benefits of the winter frost, &c. 
In the April following, when it is perfectly dry, 
harrow it and let it lie so till the middle of May, 
when it should have another deep ploughing across, 
or < ontrarywise to the former ; the first week in June 
harrow it, and towards the end of that month give 
tru fiJd a light coat of well rotted manure, and im- 
tely plough it in lightly; after which the soil 
and manure are to be we'll incorporated, by harrow- 
ing the ground effectually with a weighty harrow. 

Ah ! says the fanner, this will never do ,* the crop 

will not be worth the expence. First make ont. lair 

experiment, and I am convinced you will not give up 

tht pursuit : you ought to take into consideration, 

that after the turnips are off the ground it will be in 

a high stnte of preparation for several successive 

■ various kinds, and that without this, or si- 

. tillage, it may remain during your life in an 

roductive state. 

: sowing depends much on the nppli- 
the general mode in the middle 
., is to begin about the 20th July, and to . 
mic s - this time to the mid- 

.,t, or a few days after. 
T!- v.n en an acre by 

.. , er less than .-• d, more 

. pound and a., half, and by some tv 
... was to come to perfection a qu 
oiild be ient, but hav- 

itr so many accidents a pound is the 
: lo be sown qi\ an aci .• 



TURNIPS. 

The period in which you intend to sow, being ar° 
arrived, plough your prepared turnip ground once 
mort lighd\ ; give it one or two strokes of the har- 
row all over, and sow the seed immediately on the 
fresh surface* The method of sowing is generally, 
by broad cast, with a high and even hand ; but some 
sow in rows by means of a machine called a tin nip 
drill, which method is greatly approved of, par. 
larly as by it much labor is saved in hoeing and thin- 
ning the plants. 

I the former method, the seed is covertd by 
drawing a light harrow backward, that is, wrong end 
foremost, to prevent the teeth which are generally 
set somewhat pointed forward, from tear og up the 
clods, and burying the seed too de^p. 

Gun of the most Important parts of the treatment 
due to the cultivation* of the turnip yet remains to be 
done, that is, to roll the field with a heavy roller im- 
mediately after harrowing in the seed, provdedthat 
the ground is sufficiently dij, or as soon after as it 
is in a fit condition, b ansall the clods are 

broke::, and much of the set d that would other', 
be exposed to birds, &.<.-. will I e covered, the surface 
rendered smooth and Compact thereby, and conse- 
quently more retentive of moisture, which will great- 
ly promote the vegetation of the seed and growth of 
the plants. 

But the all- important point is, that the rolling of 
the ground is experimentally found to he the n 

ctual method hitherto discovered for the pre- 
servation of the ri p from the destructi 
depredations of the fly. The turnip fly is 
found most numerous in rough worked ground 
there they can retreat and take shelter uuder the 
clods or lunv s < i earth from such changt-s of 
weather as are i to them, or from the 
tacks of sm and otto ais« 



142 Jpfffcitfps. 

Experiments have been trie d, on coating the seed 
with sulphur, soot, &c* and of steeping it in train 
oil, and in solutions or various kinds, as a security 
against- the fly, but the result has not been such as to 
establish any practice of this nature . 

Hoeing the plants and setting them out, as it is 
©ailed, comes next under consideration ; the method 
of doing this dextrously, is difficult to describe, no- 
thing but practice can teacn it. It matters not which 
way the' operation is performed, provided the gr uucl 
be stirred, the weeds eradicated, and the plants set 
out singly and at proper distances. The due dis- 
tance is from seven to twelve inches every way: 
this must be regulated according to the strength of 
the land, the time of sowing, and the kit cl of turnip 
cultivated — strong ground and early sowings always 
producing the largest roots. 

The critical time of the first hoeing is when the 
plants lie spread upon the ground are nearly of the 
size of the palm of the hand ; if however, seed weeds 
be numerous and luxuriant, they ought to be check- 
ed before the turnip plants arrive at that size, lest by 
being drawn up tall and slender they should acquire 
a weak sickly habit. 

This first hoeing is indispensably necessary, and r. 
second might be given with ■ advantage when the 
leaves are grown to the height of eight or nine inches, 
in order to destroy weeds, loosen the earth, and 
finally to regulate the plants. 

Here again, will the? farmer exclaim against the 
expence and trouble of hoeing; but let him try one 
acre in this way, and leave another • J the same qua- 
lity to nature, as is too frequently done, and he will 
find the extra produce of the I re will more 

than six times compensate for the labor bestowed. 

Raising turnip seed requires more a v han 

ha-s hitherto been paid it. In Norfolk, the great 



TURNIPS. 146 

turnip district of England, the formers there are 
masters in the art of raising turnip seed. it is a 
fact well understood by them, that if the seed be ga- 
thered repeatedly from untransplanted roots, tin tar- 
nips horn this seed will become l coarse ne< k d' and 
* foul I flesh of the root itself rigid 

and unpalatable. On the contrary, if the seed be 
red repeatedly from transplanted roots, the 
necks will become too fine, and the fibres or roots 
too Tew J the entire plant acquiring a weak and de- 
licate ruibir, and the produce, though sweet, will be 
email. The farmer has therefore two cxtruv 
avoid. It has been found • •; experience, that 

transplanting two, thn e or four years, and letting the 
plants run up in the patch, the third, fourth or fifth, 
will keep the stock in the desired state. Th 
plaited plants are to be put into apiece of rich earth 
in the kitchen garden, or in any ether suitable place 
of the same kind. 



I 



ORCHARDS, 



"No XX XL 

The utility of an orchard, or orchards, both 

private Use and prof;., stored with the various sorts 

oi fruit treesj must he very great; as well as afford 

infinite pleasure from the delightful appearance it 

s from early spring, till late in autumn; in 

spring the various trees in, blossom arc highly orna- 

a; ; in summer the pleasure is heightened., by 

ving the various fruits advancing to perfection ; 

and as thei|eason advances, the mature growl 

the dim rent sorts arriving to perfection in regular 

succession, from May until the end ol Ox b t 

rd great delight as wdl as profit. Th- fe, e 

of a lover of improvement canscarcel) be express d, 

on observing the almost universal inattention pa i 

the greater number of our orchards, and thatp< 

go to a considerable expence in planting and 
tlishing them, afterwards leave them to the rude 
hand of nature; as ii the art and ingenuity of man 
availed nothing, or that they msi ii ed no further care : 
however, it is to be hoped, that the good example, 
and the co nt success of the careful and indus- 

'11 stimulate others to pay the necessary at- 
tention to tnese departments, and thereby to serve 
themselves as well as the community at large. 

As orchards in their general acceptation, compre- 
hend a Variety of fruit trces^, it may perhaps be pro- 
per to remark, that the observations which will fol- 
low under this head will be exclusi mfmed to 
apple trees. There is no other fruit tree which so 
richly deserves the attention and cultivation of the 
iusbandmsn 2s the apple; it will thrive and live in 



ORCIIA^ • 145 

akrttjsl every climate ; it yields a fruit equalled by 
nunc in abundance and excellence, and a liquor, 
which it properly made, is Little interior to tht befit 
wine- 

lit behoves every philanthropist to encourage the 
cultivation of orchards and the making ot good cider .j 
by way of discouraging the too general use ot ard lit 
spirits. Good cider would be a national saving of 
wealth by expelling foreign liquors; and of life, by 
expelling the use oi ardent spirits. 

The mismanagement of apple trees often begins in 
the nursery, by leaving suckers from the roots, by 
letting the trees grow so crooked as to become inca- 
pable of a good shape, and especially, by leaving 
branches for two or three year^, which must be cu'; 
away when the tree is planted, because, they are too 
low, or crowd the head. 

This incumbrance has wasted a great part of the 
sap, which w increased the re- 

gular growth. — 1 'he wounds occasioired by this lop- 
cannot soon be covered with new bark a d ia 
the m ice a decay. Sometimes 

this neglect is continued in part', when the trees are 
removed from the nursery, because some persons 
regret ; h '. ss of branches whicti would bear the 
s: nv : fori see th6 

! c is <;:i •}< s I ■ hich will in- 

fi with their growth, and force a mm h worse 

u ; ■ ion. '' h . ! begin 

at least six feet from trie ground ; and of those whose 
branches injr, eight. When -the' head has 

formed s'o low as live feet, but is well grown, ; 
be contin ttyen its branches ought to be trirrv- 

n d near the st m, and by some contrivance be ena- 
bled to rise. The head ofighi but one Lad- 
er, because two seldom sua ted, as the inward late- 
. s v. id e.oss each othtfr. Its branches should 



146 orchards. 

be equidistant, and not more than six, nor less than 
four. It the tree has ample root, and a strong body, 
the head may retain an upper tier, provided it is 
two feet above the first ; but if not, it is btst to leave 
only such upper branches, that have this height, and 
form the others from good buds. It is a bad prac- 
tice to shorten the top or the branches, except a little 
where they are too slender for their length ; by ex- 
cess, it may be very difficult to produce a good lea- 
der ; the branches will grow bushy, and he later in 
bearing, because the first fruit comes towards their 
ends. 

Trees ought not to be kept too long in the nur- 
sery, because the small space allotted for them will 
not permit a regular expansion either of the root or 
the branches ; besides, the removal, however careful, 
often kills them, or causes a lingering decay. n 
accurate inspection of the roots is necessary, for talc - 

. ■■., and worms, and also tor 
or i e too 
close. but long ramblers ought to be shorten- 

ed, and they e spread equidistant, so far as 

is p ', which may be facilitated by vvopden 

The or) common fault of s.qut< zin§ them in- 
i, has ruim d many trees : the hob s 
ugh to extend at least onejbot br- 
ibe LiiYiii longest roots, and the mould 
lie null ' 
Thi ties should not extend bej'ond 
I J if you make a deep hoi 
the clin ■ r unfriendly sub-soil, 
[uentlv ( root? 
there:; even I round id earth will 

mcl this, 

bad and^uiifr'end'y s .>il, 

whiph tie most 

y tree, and can never afford it suitable juices 



GR-eFfAR&S. 

fojf perfecting delicious iruit ; besides, the lodgment 
of water about the r ►ota in this confined bason, ia 
wet seasons, will cans.- the tree to become sickly, 
and rq get overrun with moss, and full of canker. 

Young apple trees planted shallow and the holes 
filled up with rich native mould or earth, always 
succeed the best, or more completely insures the 
ss of their fivirVg ;; (or in planting, \\\& 

roots of the young trees are so m ar t : 
to feel tht salutary influence of sun, ;:ir and rain.— > 
A great orchardist once said — %k always pi tat shallow 
and give a top dressing " 

A tree well pruned, plant' I by 

stakes against violent winds, will 9 ha** 

bk of regular pjrowth and will be easy to ket 
g 1 order afterwards. 



■18 



148 

'ORCHARDS. 

Continued. 

No. XXXJI. 

Pruning U an important article in the manage- 
ment of orchards, and therefore deserves the parti* • 
cular attention of the husbandman. Pruning, when 
judiciously done, promotes the health of the trees, 
brings them sooner into a bearing state, and conti- 
nues them in vigor for nearly double their common 
age. f| 

Should it happen that any of your trees hfcta^arge 
•heads and but few and scanty roots, redjH|fceir 
tops, by a select and judicious pruning, to a due 
proportion with their roots, for an ox, fed only thro' 
a wren's quill, could not long exist. This will sel- 
dom happen, unless by accident, or carelessness in 
the taking of them up; provided they are raised at 
.prop, r distances in the nursery. 

No branch should ever be shortened, unless for 
the figure of the $ree, and then constantly taken off 
i close at the separation, h-y which means the wound 
soon h' ils. The more the j:mge of the branches 
shoots circularly, a little inclining upwards, the mare 
.equally will the sap be distributed, and the better 
wiU trie tree bear,. For from that circumstance, the 
sap is more evenly impelled to every part. Do not 
let the ranges of branches be too near each other, 
but let them be so disposed or Situated around the 
stem, as will give to the inner parts ventilation, and 
admit sunshine, without much thinning. 

A regular position of the branches will also by a 
balance of weight, keep the tree upright, and enable 



U R C 1 1 9 

the several parts to r< si viuds, an J to sup* 

p . [ iiiii )s oil 

I. : t-f m-n-i >re, so a-: 

weak 1 n the hold 

■ 
I i-i; ■ inner [i miu- 

i 

. • . . ■ ■'• 

Mur ' mtiy, 

dtli rs n K 
I 

.....;, cs aw,] 

lii. limbs (to be t;il 
of thi; tree should be formed while it is in the 



iv, takinj all the branches as 

as possible 
V\ b.< i pvtihii c is to •• i ng neglected, the Hmbs to 
b "- '". mflE h "riie so taig£ as 10 render this ope- 
i xtremel^ prejudicial to the <rce. Many per- 
j i ■•) >i id as to ra angle regu-la* and healthy 

>n '*: j i . ;. note <>j making them be tier by thin* 
irVg c?{l" branches thicker than their own. 
I ! egs, moreover, lacerating the parts, 
. them Exposed to all the injuries from heat, 
••v\ t and Lnsi thus a certain prey to gaii- 

Saving the stumps wilt not avail, because 
they convey moisture and frosts to the sti m, i ven 
\j\ fore they rot. In a few years, large holes a 
in the body of the tree, the remaining branches be- 
come sickly, and produce bad fruit, and a premature 
death is generally certain. How often have farmers 
nearly ruined their orchards, by hawling from them 
in the spring, waggon loads of the finest branched; 
of bloom buds* 



When by neglect, hregfclar branches have become 
3arg . .. ter of two and an half m- 

- it is uh^ ui them • ff, but some of their 

i-t mov< (i. f i :h v gall </ 
. Ixe av<, 
ter • d to the 

. 

ectty smooth and 

i . 

■ ■/ u to at 
: ; - Kej) tfeu! ' 

. oil, co 
d.ree" years iheiice ; if 
ocmer it is c if, she better. When pru- 

■. v-ry little 
value, as vill th^n^be s Offered to h; 

ling to the ground, and he h-.-ads of the trees will 
be-solead-d with wood as to be almost impervious 
to the sun a ad air, 

By a redundancy of wood, the roots are exhaust- 
ed unprofitable-, the be-aring wood is robbed of part 
nee, and the natural life of the tree mi- 
ne ces outcried ; whi t su;x;0uo;;^ wood 
endangers the tree by giving the winds an additional 
power over ft, and is injurious' to trie , bearing v 
by retaining u ps, and preventing a dae circu- 
lation of air. muion to see fruit trees, by a 
,g in due time, with two or three 
tiers of boughs pressing so hard upon o;«e an 

their twigs so intimately interwoven, that a 
small bird can scare . ong them. Tree's^ 

cted, acquire, from want of due-venti] 

e fruit becomes of a crude in- 
. •■. 

c C onn in the nursery, and re- 

) c I ,U'.u e\ try spring in the orchard, h) tak« 



ORCHARDS. lo-i 

jng off small limbs as they gradually appear, by this 
means keeping the trees in a bearing and flourishing 
state, all the advantages to be derived from this ope- 
ration will be fully experien.ed, and its disadvanta- 
ges, arising from neglect and its improper applica- 
tion, entirely avoided. 



SHARDS. 

Continued, 

No. xxxnr. 

With respect to situation, very thriving orchard 
•»re frequently found on high and low grounds, on 
declivities and plains, in various aspects and expo- 
sures ; but this is in consequence of the natural soil 
being good. You should, however, avoid very damp 
situations, particularly such as lodge water, for in 
very wet soils, no fruit trees Will prosper, nor will 
the fruit produced in such places be good ; but a 
moderately low situation, free from v,vt, may be more 
eligible than an elevated groanchyas beffhg less expo- 
sed 'to tempestuous winds ; but, if having a gentle 
declivity, the more desirable. A proper soil being 
the grand and essential requisite, should be carefully 
selected, for on this depends much of your success; 
a good ( : . :. neither too dry, nor w<t, is 

the most suitable for all kinds of fruk trees, and 
wh high or low situations, it 

be preferred to every other, Generalh speaking, 
ground that will produce good crops of natural grass, 
uv kitchen garden vegetables, is suitable for ar2jO£- 



'ORCHARDS. 

afd ; if of a loamy nature, it will be a particular 
advantage, any soil, however, of a good quality, not 
too light and dry, nor too heavy, stubborn, or wet, 
and no: less than one spade deep of good staple, will 
be proper for this purpose- 

Yuu sftcmld have great regard to the distance of 
planting the trees, which is what few people have 
Ti;;luly considered; for if you plant them too close, 
they will be liable to blights ; the air being irrereby 
pent in amongst them, will also cause the fruit to be 
jll-tasttd ; fur a great quantity ol damp vapors from 
ihe perspiration of the trees, and the exhalation from 
the earth mixed with it, will be imbibed b) the fruit, 
.and render their juices c^ude and unwholesome; be- 
sides, it is the opini ome well informed natu- 
ralists and orchardists, that these vapors and perspi- 
ration of the trees, collect the heat t>f the sun, and 
*<-ik:t It in .streams} so as-to cause wi at is called *a 
fire bla-t; which, is extremely hurtful to fruit, and 
most fiequeut, where orchards arc open to the south 

sum 

Ai, need orchardist observes, that "his 

apyie trees are planted S3 feet apart in squares, which 
K ps the nearest distance, they shoulo 

ph Another .1 brc&ardisi ot P;nn- 

s^jvaoia, ' v that squares oi forty feet is the 

pr ;p 

En k -i, plant tree^ in autumn, and 

in soils inclined to be moist or watery, 

pt to chill and kill them. — 
E is good to open the hoh.s in the !all, 
: them i: : " i ichos 

; | mi i -.vs the land ihrown oiu, 

g. Where a soil is light 
i ( r : uhject to inundation, pi 

! Til gain fibres enough to supj 
4 r, and v. 



OP,C HARDS. 

snd better than those planted in the spring.— 
The time of planting young apple tree- will he i 
latcd by the season. In the fall Ihey may be plant- 
ed as soon us they nave shed theii leaves, pr vided 
there is no frost in the ground, and in the spring be- 
fore the buds begin 10 burst. 

In planting trees, should the earth be rather shal- 
low, so that you cannot coyer the toots a uffioi 
deptn with good sod, you must have some hauled, 
for th.it purpose, to where each tree is to be planted, 
or collected to such places, from the general surface, 
and bank the roots around therewith; i'or there is 
no alternative, between planting them in the good 
soil, where their roots can take a wide exf nd> d ho- 
rizontal direction, and lie within the reach of the 
genial influence of heat, rain, dew and air, and t: 
of an untimely end, if planted too dc^-p. 

Tillage is favorable to the growth of voung ln.es, 
•whereas in grass ground their progress is compare 
lively slow, {or want oi die earth Uing. stirred about 
tir Yt roots and kept loose arid optn. 

William Go*e, of New- jersey, who has paid more 
nttention to ih-- raising of orchards, than perhaps 
..any other person in our country, (he having above 
3000 apple trees ill cultivation) thus re ng 

orchards thrive in proportion to tl a of the 

soil and the degrxre of cultivation d on them*, 

Shallow planting more completely n^res the suc- 
cess of their living.: which s the roots so 
near the surface of the earth, that by keeping the 
soil around them in a loose and mellow state, free 
from weeds, grata or gi y i\ el tl 
tary influence of the sun, air and rain, the last of 
which, in our dry climate, is particularly essential to 
their success, far several years after planting. 1 
this season^ all kinds of fallow crops, such as pota- 
toes, vines, and Indian coin, paiikuiarlv- the last, . 



iJ* 0&CHAP.L)*!. 

■x-culiarly adapted to the first and second vear^s cul- 
tivation of orchards. — It is an excellent practice} if 
orchards are sowed in .mv kmd of small grain or 
grass, to dig up the ertfih twice in the year around 
root of the trees for several feet so as to make a 
circle of at least six tlet diam -ter. All grain crops 
are injurious in proportion t > their proximity to the 
iree, their power ot exhausting the moisture, irom 
their color or producing a great degree of intense re- 
flected heat. To avoid these injurious effects, dig 
as mentioned above three feet around T which will keep 
the soil lobae around them, and enable the trees to 
resist or live in a long drought. Although this ope- 
ration where extended to several housand trees, 
which at present compose my orchards, necessarily 
is productive of much expense and trouble, I am re- 
paid fourfold in the increased vigor o^ my trees,, 
and siill more in their preservation from our summer 
drought.' 

There is nd doubt that continually enriching and' 
cultivating old apple orchards is injurious to the 
trees — but for young trees it is attended with the 
greatest advantages. By manuring and cultivating 
ofd orchards too often, it causes them to overbear, 
and by forwarding the fruit too soon, to drop before 
the time for gathering to keep, or fur cider. Mel- 
low mud or rich mould, is the best manure which 
can be applied to young apple tiees- If the ground 
is poor, stable manure is the least proper .kind to be 
used, being, from its nature, least able to resist the 
destructive effects of our summer droughts* and af- 
fording a shelter to vermin equally pernicious in the 
winter, particularly in light soils ; rich earth or river 
and meadow mud ameliorated by frost or putrefac- 
tion, either in its simple state, or mixed With as les, 
time or perfectly roitefe eking, is of all others, after 
*he first year, the best dressing, to be spread on the 



1 a 3 

ce and ploughed i.. It is an excellent pi. 

■ 

ly injiii i id. 

■ 
Be fei 

until v hkh 

. . 
f pen; un* - 

I >ie inanuring, It is constant!) ob- 

n the stum 
- . - 

■ ■ 
V ith a sharp should bi 

■ ;■ 

. • to apri 
iw parrs of t] 
• 
•;d itttisT thei e tre.s with a 

-tick or lon-g pole. It is said by a respi cable 
lei*, that by'.pUicing r. I dirt in ths 

fork 'of an a;\ •<: tree. oi 4 by i i 
thr 'mdy of the tree, .e eateY] 

- nv o ' • : ; . . 1 1 rt 

• 

tiiev an. so cpsil\ d "i by the former 

rneth nt la- 

3 

injur insects. a 

■ 

and irrjui 
incur: 

conn try. This evil n 
and ruW 

I , 
ii too wtt, or rciciiu\% 0JV41 



OIIC HARDS. 

prevent or cure moss ; or digging round the trees 
on thr approach of winter, or in spring, an 1 bi i 
fresh mould, r the scouring of ponds, or the earth 

/lied up on the site ot long standing fei 
5a. ; round them. Whatever contributes to the health 
ure, or in some degree mitigate 
this and other diseases- 

In _. we must c msider the climate 

in which We UyeV and dh 
to th. ;-at or c>kl- In hot-coun 

.1 in colder ( 
because the snp has peri" i >oi}er A — 

wW keep longer. a to 

rem. 11:1 on the tr e. We shaujd gath-rr fruit :r 
frost, for \vc are then sure the sap will no Ion er aid 
it. i his consideration merits m >re attention, per- 
haps, than has hitherto be£ti paid n. 

V - A\, many excuse themselves from paying 

much atteoti -■n to their orchards, by saying " they 

a* pot worth it." Herein' thev are mistaken — 

els properlv cultivated, and the cider 

pTQ&uCrd from them properly made, every far me r 

\v.mld find that no pains or attention which he could 

••' upon his or hards would be too great. In 

the northern states, the farmers discover that they 

v too much at.ention to thtir orchards.— 

-.ave almost completely substituted cider 

I -pniis; and tins wholesome beverage isj£q 

1 on their ifables little inferior to the best 

out the year. I have before observed, 

that g - would be a national saving of wealth, 

ore ign Hquors, and of life, by expelling 

\ ardent spirits. And I consider apples, 

u idi r t- '■■<- v. j ties, the length, of time they may 

foe preserved, T us s made of them, not 

11 our kinds of fruits •; but 
perhaps ol n>o*e real v^tue -to the people ir. general 



ORCHARDS* tSSf 



than all the other fruits. Bt skies these considera- 
tions, the pleasure and delight which a farmer must 
experience in the cultivation of an orchard, exce, ds 
perhaps any ether belonging to his pleasing and hap- 
py pursuit. 



PEACH TRi 



No. XXXIV 



The Peach may be ranked with the mo-;: .. 
fruit that produced in any c 

nerally raised frprri the stone, but t\ kinds art 

those propagated by innoculat\un or grafting ■ 

The peach tree is Subject to many calamities, 
and is in general short lived ; its preservation, to 
any considerable a-gr, is only to be ensured by skill 
and attention — its pr cious fruity is, therefore,, for- 
bidden to the slothful, the negligent and the ignorant- 

The peach tree is liable to thrc- tuwej or 

calamities — first, the fh — second, tht breaking of 
limhs. which brings on a <■ ca — - Wounds 

receive! on the body bv burs.. he bark by gc-r 

vere frosts m winter, and the injuria s do\ir to it by 
birds, inse ts, &.c. 

But the most general decay of peach trees, is ow- 
ing to a worm which originals from a arge il 
resembles a common wasp. This fl perforates 
ba-k,and deposits an egg i< the moist part 

of it. The most common place of perforation is at 
arf.tc of the earth w! rougher and har- 

der bark which i- i x\ mospbericd iuflu rice 

begins to change to the sofu-r character of that which 



*EA£H TREE'S. 

s the roots. In this particular part the rlv m 

able to puncture the surface, and then introduce its 

Ths they perform in our climate from the 

le or July through August and September. In 
August, for the most p.irt, the worms assume the 
chrysalis state, and in eight or ten days are trans- 
formed into fiies. Tjien they immediately begin to 
deposit their cgus which nre soon hatched into 
worms, and thus the round of transformation com- 
mon to the insect tube is completed. The eggs de- 
posited by the fly at the trnes and manner just stat- 
ed, are changed into worms; and it is in the worm 
state they do the mischref, b\ preying upon the soft 
inner bark of the tree, which is the medium of cir- 
culation for the sap, .bus interrupting the- flow of the 
sap — the immediate cons-cm- nee of which is, (he 
destruction of the fruit* and finally the destruction 
tree. Gum issuing out of a peach tree at or 
neaar the surface 01 the ground^ is a sure sign tha*: 
thtrre are worms under tht-bark. 

Various means have been resorted to, and with va- 
rious kuccesSf, for the purpose of destroying these 

-. or of preventing them from dorrig injury to 
thetr-es. These various methods shall now b- gjv* 
eri as practised by some ol' the^most respectable and 
distinguished farmers of our co.untrv. 

PR. TILTON« OF THE STATE OF DELAWARE 

I shall say but little on the cultivation of this use- 
ful tree; but will barely remark, that it should al- 
be planted shallow, with the soil raised about 
it in the form of a hill ; that Forsythe's m< thod of 
h< wf'ingdown the trees a vear i r two after plai 
insures the most vigorous growth ; and th 
the ground, for some years, after setting th< m out in 
orchards, is - : I to the rapid and sacc'ei 

growth of the trees. The diseases and early deatb 



H CH TREES. 159 

of our peach trees, is a fertile source of observa' 
far from being exhausted. Among the insects which 
are great enemies to these trees is a little beetle, cal- 
led curculio, about the size of a pea bug, which punc- 
tures the fruit and occasions it to fall off and rot be- 
fore it comes to maturity. These insects may be 
exterminated by means of hogs. This voracious 
animal, if suffered to go at brge in oi and 

among fruit trees, devours all the fruit that falls, and 
among others, the curculious, in the maggot state, 
which may be contained in them. Being thus gene- 
rally destroyed in the embryo state, there will be 
^few or no bugs to ascend from the earth in the spring 
to injure the fruit. Many experienced farmers have 
noted the advantage ot hogs running in their or- 
chards. The best method of destroying the wasp- 
like insect (which bores the I , and de- 
lights in that region just hi surface of the 
earth) that I have ever employed, is to draw the dirt 
from the root of the tree, in the fall, pud pour boil- 
ing water on the roots. In the spring, mv practice 
is, to return the soil to the tree, in the form of a hill. 
By means of this sort, a tree may be preserved ma- 
ny years. 

IHOHARD PETEHS, PE 

The worm or grub, produced by the wasp, depo- 
sing its progeny in the soft bark, near the surface 
of the ground, is the most common destroyer of the 
peach tree. I remove the earth a lew inches round 
the tree in August or nner. After July the 

wasp ceases to pierce the bark and to ts de- 

posits. I pour round the butt of the tree, 1 

>ut one foot ahove the ground, a quart or n 

(not being nice about the (j hot 

soapsuds or water. This kills tue egg or worm 

14 



160 P£ACH TRELS. 

lodged in the tender bark; and, of course, prevents 
lid ravages the next season. I also have the trees 
bared at the roots and exposed to the winter. I 
have lost some in this way j but I still continue the 
practice. I have been in the habit of doing this for 
ten or twelve years, and prefer it to any other treat- 
ment. To supply deficiencies, I plant young trees 
every year. When trees become sickly, I grub them 
up; I find that sickly trees often infect those in vi- 
gor near them, by some morbid effluvia. I he young 
trees supply their loss, and I have no trouble in 
nursing those in a state of decay :' which is common- 
ly a hopeless task. 

WILLIAM GLOXja, BURLINGTON, NLW-JERSHY. 

I always search the roots of my trees twice in the 
season, last of July and September. On the first of 
October, I open the ground around the roots so as to 
leave a basin of the size of. a common wash basin — 
in this state they are Feft until the next spring — 'the 
ice ariid snow which fill the hole during winter, ef- 
fectually kills the worm should it have eluded my 
search. I also endeavor to prevent the limbs from 
breaking and from excessive bearing, by close pru- 
iiii rg, which I have long found more eflicacious in 

aqh than in any other fruit trees. 

OOCKE, VIRGINIA. 

I think I have discovered a remedy for the worm 
whieh prevs upon peach trees at or near their roots') 
and which is so destructive to their existence. — This 
remedv consists in tobacco. As much cured tobac- 
co as is tied v^ in a bundle, viz : from four to six 
leave-, is sufficient for a tree. The tobacco in a 
inoisl state, so as to render it fl xible, is bound 
ground the body of the tree just at the surface of the 
earth, enci' e part where the fly deposits its 

gs. This precaution ' is to be taken before the 



hatching of the flies — ihe first c I 

but to make the experiment successful i 

be put off lunger than this period. The 

generally >us to the insect tribe 

to this destructive 

p roach. 

My first ex] i< i 

to ten or twelve peach trees ; the next sprtti 
that the trees still threw cut guru near the surface, 
and I feared my experiment had tailed ; upon a close 
examination however, I perceived gfim had 

issued out from the old wounds of the farther 
which were not } r et entirely healed. The last sum- 
mer I again applied the tobacco, and tlrls spring have 
assiduously examined the trees — Upon the whole, I 
find that those trees which have enjoyed the behe- 
fits of the tobacco application for two years, have ail 
their wounds entirely healed and thrown out no gum ; 
and in no instance have I found the worm to have 
existed, when the tobacce was applied. From f 
facts, it is evident that tobacco stalks, when strip- 
ped of their, leaves^ would be excellent to" throw 
arcane! the roots of fruit tree*. 



162 
CIDER. 

Ko. 

is a general fruit >ear, and" much cider is 
'. (1 to be made, it will no doubt be acceptable 
, to state the best modes of cider making. 
tl is >:.> ch to he lamented that so little j^ood • 

itten- 
io the subject, or horn a want oi knowledge of 
the best modes of making it ; owing to one or other 
of these circumstances, many permit their apples to 
ret on the ground or~te ^>e given to their hogs where- 
as were they converted into cider, properly made, it 
would keep good the year round, affording for the 
table a wholesome and agreeable beverage little infe- 
rior to wine, and by many preferred to if. 

In the northern states, the art of making good ci- 
der is so well understood, that almost every farmer 
has it by him the year round, and to their general 
use of cider, instead 61 ardent spirits, we may, in a 
measure, ascribe that temp- ra ce, health, and mora- 
lity, for .which they are remarkable. To encourage 
the manufacture of good cider, and to prevent its 
conversion into ardent spirits, by distillation, as much 
as possible, the latter < f which is proving a curse to 
our country in the most lamentable manner, I will 
proceed to detail the best modes of making cider, as- 
practiced by the best cider makers in the northern 
states. 

One of the first errors with respect to cider is, ga- 
thering apples when wet ; the second is, throwing 
them together exposed to sun and rain, until a sour- 
ness pervades the, whole mars; thirdly, making so 
large a cheese that fomentation will come on before 



16 3 

the? juice can all be pressed out : for certain it is, 
that a small quantity of the juice pressed out after 
fermentation comes on, will spoil the product of a 
whole cheese ; and fourthly, permitting cider, alter 
it has undergone fermentation or working, ?o remain 
on the lees, instead of racking it off. If, then, either 
of the above circumstances will spoil the cider, which 
I know to be the cast, what must be the effec of a 
combination ot the whole, which irequently happens.* 

Having pointed out the errors to be avoidtd, I now 
proceed to s ate the methods to be observed in the 
mafcingoi" good cider. 

Gather the apples that are intended for cider, when 
they are perfectly dry, and lay them down m layers, 
in the ciderh >use and odier outhouses on floors, not 
exceeding two feet thick ; where there is space suf- 
ficient, thi preferable, for the object is 
to promote the ripening <>f the fruit, and the evapo- 
ration of the watery particles. In this situation they 
are left about two weeks, secured from rain and wet, 
but exposed to the air as much as possible, wh n 
r again .to be sorted, the rotten ones thrown 
out, and t d ground in the mill or beat — here 
i\ ivill b< proper to observe that the mi 1 thi press, 
and all the materials used, be sweet and clean, and 
t:i straw clear from must — The pummice is then 
laid in troughs for 12 cr 24 hours; this tends to 
n the juice, enrich the cider and gi\e it a fine 
r color. But the time in which the pummice 
remains in this state', must be regulated by the state 
of the weather, without measuring the length oi time 
by hours ; for it is evident that at one season the 
same length of time will produce no Sensible effect, 
at a much warmer season would induce th<; 
Commencement of an acid fermentation. As soon as 

*14 



164 CIDEK. 

tht juice is pressed out, the great art in making cider 
commences, as nature begins to work a wonderful 
change in it. The juice of fruit, if left to itself, will 
undergo three distinct fermentations, all of which 
change the quality < f i\iti ftuicL The 1st is, trn,- vi- 
rions -, the 2nd, the acetous ; and the 3rd, the putrid. 
The first fermentation is the only one Which trie juice 
should undergo, to make good cider — It is 

operation which separates me filth from the 
juice, and leaves it a clear, sweet, vinous liqu 
To preserve it in this s f ate is the great secret; this 
is done by racking it off from the lees or dregs, fu- 
migating it with sulphur, which checks any further 
fermentation, and lastly, by fining it. 

The juice, as it onus from the press, snould be 
placed in open fc* aeed casks, or in the largest ves- 
sels which can he procured, in which it should re- 
main until the fermentation ceases. The person at- 
tending may, with great correctness ascertain when 
this first ft nntntation ceases— this i? or great impor- 
tance, and must be particularly attended to. 

The fermentation is attended with a hissing noise, 
which is heard by putting the ear to the bung hole, 
or in open headed casks, by observing the bubbles 
rising to the satf-ce, and there forming a soft spon- 
gy crust :-r;-when the hissing noise 

s,.nr the crust begins to crack, and a white 
in the cracks level with the surface of 
the head, the fermentation is a' >out stopping. When 
the fermentation has entii ided, the liquor is 

fine and clear, and is then in a pKojH-r state to be 
drawn off, ana -if then neglected^ the particles of pum- 
mice that had settled clown to the botto n of the 
cask, will, di :rm or damp state of the wea- 

ther, rise up again, mix with the juice, and thus pro- 
duce a second fermentation, which is always acetous 
I J injurioi cider. 



Cli-JJ 

The cider should there fore, immediately after the 
fifst fermentation ceases* be drawn off into sweet, 
clean casks or hogsheads that havt been well scald- 
ed and rinsed. T pi^erve the cider in its nm- vi- 
nous state, and to check any further fermentation, it 
must be fumigated with sulphur. To do this, take a 
snip of canvas or rag about two inches hroad and 
twelve inches- long; dip this into melted sulphur, 
(brimstone) and when a few pails of worked cider 
are put into the cask, set this match on fire, and hold 
it in the cask until it is consumed, then bung the 
cask and shake it, that the liquor may incorporate 
with and retain the fumes; aftyr this, fill tht 
and bung it perfectly close by running pitch over he 
bung, so as entirely to exclude the ail — Cider thus 
pr. pared will keep good and sweet until hue in the 
spring, and it not consumed by that time, and in- 
tended for sale or further ktt must undergo 
the following more particular . . — • 

At the- time of fintnjg cider there should not be 
the least. degree of fermentation ; and perhaps the 
best time for fining is, in the winter, in steady cool 
weather. Draw off some gallons of cider, propor- 
tioned to the quantity of cider to be fined, into a ves- 
sel, to this add of Ismglass p uuded and urirayejled 
into shreds, about two ounces to the 1. I, con- 

taining 1 12 or 115 gallons, or an ounce to a barrel. 
The liquor with the Isinglass is frequently stirred 
up for three or four davs, so that t is completely 
diluted into a thin jelly, and is thfcn strain* 
a flannel or hair si* ve. The fining may now be ad- 
ded to the cider without drawing it off, but the best 
general practice is, t > pour \ our fining into the emp- 
ty eask. and then draw off your cider jnd pour it on 
the fining — This haves behind, a great part or rhe 
sediment, checks insensible fermentation, and mixes 
intimately the cider with the fining, The cider thus- 



166 CIDER. 

final, will generally become fine and blight in eight 
*>r ten datsj and should then be drawn olf from iiie 
lees of the fining, and Dtinged close or bottled — If 
drawn into casks, they snou b bunged close and 
pitched over the bung to keep the air entirely out. 

To do this tffectually, after the btirig is carefully 
driven in, bore a gimblet hole near the hunghole, 
and Lave it ooen an til vou have covered the bunt' 
with the cement, to admit the air below, ma- 
ny the warmth of the cement, to pass off; when the 
cement is copied and hardened, the. gimt>let hoh is 
eompktely closed by driving a white oak. square 
plug into it. When bottled, by cutting off the corks 
even with the bottles, and dipping its mouth into 
boning pitch, it is as completely closed, as tne best 
bottled claret or burgundy. 

It will also be proper, previous to closing up the 
cider, to put one large and not more than two raisins 
to each bottle and a proportionate quantity to each 
barrel. 

Cider thus made, will keep good for years, and 
will exhibit that sparkling or bounding up, whtn 
poured into a gl'asrs] so pleasing in the finest Cham- 
paigns wine. 



IRRIGATION. 



No. XXXVI. 



The watering or am6cial i par- 

ticularly of gra*s grounds, is an item y 
economy, 

of the husbandman. If to a : 
of the soil, ah equ al attentipn sva., 
flooding or watering of grass grounds in tv> rv 
of this State, wherever the situation v> 
haps I shitii not ad van ]f that :ew 

States would curs in the ' 

Cultural products. 

The subject of irrigation will, perhaps, appear of 
greater magnitude than people in general art . 
of, the -more it is examined : for i conceive it may 
he said to lie at the foundation of h i move- 

ments ?n agriculture; because if mai uit ; 

pimum mobile in husbancii 
will deny the truth of the observation) J ;. 
it will be found that this same v 

d may be m..< ., the source of mor-.. 

tiring else ; and as the capac I 
maintaining st< ck is the basis of the p \ of a 

farm (which m;-\ be feid v.< wn as an i rural 

scit ncv ) so this c: fully acquired 

h\ a t< tiding to id ,. 
Jji!"- what renders the 
inestimable is, that . ttejws manui 
which, without this process would be enti 
because those riches that are r 
tonishii p - fl ;c,ts (by turnii 
vey« ■ . ; , down * i 

and consequently lost in tl.it vast collection ot »a~ 



IcS IRRIGATION, 

ters. Now, the watering of land, in a proper man- 
ner, not oniy raises an amazing crop of hay, but car- 
spring eatage and a more plentiful lattermath. — . 
The hay again, properly consuin. d, makes a large 
annual return in dung or manure, which can be em- 
>d to great advantage on such parts of the farms 
as most need it; because the watered meadow re- 
quires no other help but repeating the same process 
as often as necessary, while it repays the expense 
and toil bestowed upon it in the most grateful man- 
ner, by plentiful and certain crops of hay, year afttr 
year, and instead of being exhausted, becomes richer 
or more productive. 

Water is absolutely essential to vegetation ; and 
when land has be«n covered by it in the winter, or 
beginning of spring, the moisture that has penetrated 
deJep into the soil, and even the subsoil, becomes a 
source pf nourishment to the roots of the plants in 
the summer, and prevents those bad effects that often 
happen in lands in their natural state, from along 
ex .'i nuance of dry weather. 

The advantages of irrigation, though so lately a 
subject of much attention, were well known to the an- 
cients ; and more than two centuries ago the practice 
was recommended to the farmers of Great Bri'ain 
by L nd Bacon : according to the statements of Jiis 
illustrious philosopher, kl> meadow watering" acts 
not onl}' by supplying useful moisture to the grass, 
but likewise, the water carries nomishment dissolve 
in it, and defends the roots from the effects of old. 

I s' ; -c\ t<> make some further remarks on 

irrigation, in order to induce the farmers of this 
State to ben< mselves by this most useful, rho' 

I am afraid, hitherto little understood improvement. 
There are many parts of almost every farm that might 
have water conveyed over them, either on a small or 
;e scale, and to very great advantage: for every 



IRRIGATION. 169 

little brook or rivulet is capable of being thrown 
over the adjoining grounds, more or less in propor* 
tton to tbeii descent; the more descent, the more 
land c :r He oveifl .wed. 

Iii order to manage this important branch of rural 
economy with success, it will be requisite first to as- 
certain whether ilure is iaii or descent enough in 
the stream to irrigate a suffici- no. of the adjoining 
land, to make the object worth undertaking and wne« 
ther it will admit or a clam being thrown across it 
to sustain or increase tn<- fall ; arid secondly, whe- 
ther the water can be carried off with the s;ur.e faci- 
lity as.it is conducted on the soil. The second ron- 
sid ration is a very important one ; for if the water 
cannot be convey d off, it will stagnate on the mea- 
dow, which would be productive ol '.he worst < 
sequences; as the turf *• come rotten, the soil 

be soaked without being ameliorated^ and the land 
produce only coarse grass rushes, cr other 
weeds. The i< yel of the; stream should be taken, 
w hie 1 1 ma\ be very well clone by means of the rafter 
level i\*tit\ in horizontal ploughing, a ditch or ra. 
the 1 e UY.Ce oi the Ie\ • h Up the 

head land as thi fall of ihe stream will admit, allov 

r deso&ni h to give the water a 

current; the d< Width oi' th . or) ace 

will be iir. v the cjtiantit> r.f water it r$ to 

contain and the numbfer of acres to be i to 

be -.1 on the level as far -as may he conv ni- 

ent or necessary, and then let into the stream from 
. which it was tak n; the interior side of the ditch or 
ra I be of the same height throughoui 

whol length, in order that it may ! ;jj^. 

tanee above the water i;; every part which need 

three or Sluices are to be 

rn ■■: pn tn main di li leading thr >ugh rlifl 
parts of the ground, the Dumber of win.. 



17fc IRRIGATION*. 

ramifications,, their direction and distance from each 
other will h regulated by the situation of the ground; 
they should however be so disposed as to bestow an 
equal distribution of water on every part of the 
ground*? When the main ditch is on a stri t level 
anu there is water sufficient to flood the whole at 
once, a gate at che further end will answer for this 
purpose ; but it the wattr is scanty, there should be 
gates in each sUli e from the main ditch by letting 
up one of the gates for the space of ten days, at the 
expiration of which time it is to re let down, and so 
on with the others alternately, for a similar period, 
each division will receive a proper share of water in 
its turn, and derive irijrn it equal benefit. 

Some attention shotfld be paid to the time and 
manner in which the water is applied. In Decem- 
ber and January, the chief advantage consists in 
keeping the land sheltered by water from the severi- 
tv ot ?hc frosty nights. In February, if the water re- 
fer manv days., a white scum arises very des- 
tructive to the grass; SfnU it the land is exposed 
without water to severe frosty nights, the greater 
pair (fine grass will be kdk-:d. The only way to 
I this is; to tak'- off the water and turn it in over 
r o ike. offnhe water early in the gnor i ^g, 
; the (day be very dry no frost can do no :rju- 
when the grass is wet that frost 
;ibus tendency. The advantages of ir- 
0;: fined to grass grounds, but, may 
at benefit be extended to horticulture 
field culture; Gardens are, rendered doubly valua- 
li a stream can be conveyed into them to supply 
that i cam which -. ;s so frequ mi- 

tt dry springs and summers. The best 
means of supplying this deficiency or the regular de- 
li vegetative succession, particularly to the 
vine crops through a droughty season, are by cotton 



•IRRIGATION* 171 

or woollen syphons ; oth r kinds of garden vegeta- 
bles may be benefited by overflowing the ground, 
which is best done late in evenings. '1 he advantages 
of irrigation have been little experienced in this 
tountry in the field culture; yet in Europe they are 
enjoyed upon an extensive scale ; and the improve- 
ments and arrangements which they have made in 
many parts of that country to -irrigate their farms, 
must excite the wonder and praise of every lover of 
the rural art. 

Birk beck's account, in his travels, of the manner of 
irrigation in the Southern part of France, is highly 
interesting; a short extract Irom his remarks on this 
subject shall be g'nen, and perhaps they may awaken 
considerations in tht minds of some of my readers, 
which may be turned to good account. 

u We had an oppotunity of witnessing the won* 
derful effects of irrigation under the fervid sun of 
this rich climate. The copious and pure streams is- 
suing from the Pyrenees, from their source to their 
tmion with the Mediterranean, are most economi- 
cally and skilfully directed to irrigation. On the? 
mountain sides, the streamlets, as they trickle from 
the rocks, are collected into channels above every lit- 
tle portion of arable land, which, they render surpri- 
singly fruitful. These rills uniting form larger 
streams; and these with great labor and ingenuity, 
are kept up by artificial channels, ;*nd only suffered 
to descend as they perform the office of irrigation. 
The same attention is paid to the larger streams, 
which united become a considerable ri^er. This is 
divided and subdivided, unites, and is again divided, 
so that every portion of the surface seems to enjoy 
its due share. The manner of applying the wateris 
.extremely simple* A dam is made across the upper 

15 



&72 THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE. 

.channel, from which the water flows gently into a 
furrow made by the plough along the higher side of 
the field, and in a few hours soaks through the whole 
/soil, until it reaches the lower side, which completes 
the operation." 



THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE. 

No. XXXVII. 

The want of a due estimation of the pursuits of 
Agriculture, is, in many countries, a grand impedi- 
ment to its progress.- Where the cultivation ol the 
.soil is regarded with contempt, or as beneath the at- 
tention of men oj standing and v.ducation, it will be 
entrus- d to tht management of persons of nanow 
capitals and still na« rowtr minds. Such prtjadic s 
operate in various places. In almost every part 
ol the United Statt-s they are fortunately rapidly 
dissipating, and agricultural pursuits are viewed, 
as liny should be. as the basis of our strength 
and prosperity, and therefore, worthy the atten- 
tion ol the wise and good. — Many of our best 
jpitiZcns, who wtr- clis inguished in the fi.-ld and in 
the cabinet* are now to be round on their farms, de- 
voting ri cir time and attention to the occupations of 
husi ..nelrv, as the surest means of gaining an hono- 
yabi< subsistence and of doing good to their coun- 
try. !»y thus encouraging and patronizing this first 
of arts. 

An % idea, however, yet too generally prevails, that 
young men, and many of those who have fine landed 
^states, must of necessity study and pursue sorae 



THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE. f73 

public profession, the pursuits of agriculture being' 
too low a-id mean to engage their talents and atten- 
tion. 

Agriculture, when skilfully pursued, is calculated 
to call into aaion every noble and improved faculty 
of the mind, and is capable of Deing aided by the 
most it r sting branches of the sciences; and in 
the late improvements' which ir has undergone, it ha a 
been shown tha^jsome of its most important princi- 
ples are derived from, and m:»y be illustrated by* 
chemical doctrines. The objection, therefore, that 
yon £ m n would h ivt iii»emn!nvm<nc for the. ir ta-' 
Irtits and learning, w^re -they to eYig'age in the pur-' 
suits of agr.cnl' ee, Is entirely 

I consider the insensibility to the I Ie of 

th> sunj ct, to be th> greatest - 

c ment, which agriculture h;is to 
Tne fii *t prepaiat-rv Step tovytds its :mn. 
Is to Si *, not' only uf farin< rs, but of 

the community at large, that it is an obj rma*' 

ry importance ; and not attainable in ; ry 

mere farmers. It this be not accomplished', efforts* 
to introduce any thing til t or principle, will 

be arduous indee 

A Farmer should he eottsj by himself^ as- 

well fas by all other membei'S ol the communiiv, as 
one placed in a stna ion to perform the most bene^ 
ficial services to the public, bv exercising a calling 
in which all other ciizrus are peculiarly in 
He mav be, person iiiv, no better or worse than 
others ; but the art in winch he is engaged^ is ihe 
most essential, cf all otners, to the general w« I 
an art which should be encouraged and supported by 
all manner of citizens. Agriculture having been 
not only the first of Atts y in priority of time, but the 
first in the estimation of the wisest and greatest men 
in every age, should eves be deemed ths first object^ 



174 THE IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE* • 

both of public and private attention. Power, espe- 
cially that delegated by the people, should extend its 
arrr», and oprn its hand, ior its aid a:xl protection* 
Wealth should unlock its coffers for its encourage- 
ment ; science and every mental acquirement should 
be liberally bestowed, when instruction is required, 
as it always has been, by the tillers of the earth $■ 
whose occupation in a great degree, secludesthem 
from opportunities oi gaining scientific knowledge, 
and a capacity for philosophic research. Commerce 
should yield to the support of .Agriculture, a share 
of those profits whereof it is the source; and Ma- 
nufactures should bestow a willing tritrute to the art, 
on which the*r subsistence depends. Those who 
devote themselves to the learned professions, should 
render to it, both homage and contribution. Their 
usefulness,' or gains, Would be small indeed, am<ng 
shepherds and hunter>— and those were for the most 
part, the employments of man, before agriculture 
widely diffused its blessings, and mainly contributed, 
not only to the civilization, but to the happiness, 
wealth, subsistence and safety of our race. Those 
who minister at the Altars, amd are our instructors 
and examples, in our most-exalted concerns, are also 
bound to animate, instruct, and encourage the culti- 
vators of the soil* Many of them, in other countries, 
have been highly meritorious, both in precept and 
example, on this subject,- And they peculiarly know, 
that the exercise of this art, is venerable for its an- 
tiquity;- — was enjoined by a dispensation of Provi- 
dence, and established by an ordinance of Heaven. 

Those who have a permanent residence in our 
towns and cities, should be more convinced, than 
they have hitherto been, of the obligations they owe 
to agricultuie. Th< ir daily subsistence, and their 
necessary cemforts and even luxuries, depend, either 
directly or consequentially, on this first of arts*— - 



THE IMPORTANCE OT» AGRICULTURE. 17$ 

The better the style of husbandry, the more benefit's 
they derive from it. It is no reasonable excuse for 
withholding their assistance, or encouragement, that 
they arc not agriculturalists. They puss- ss, and 
should b stow, the means of promulgating encou- 
ragement and information to those who are engaged 
in the labors of the field. 

Ou us, whose happy lot is cast in a free country, 
the extension and encouragement of agricultural im* 
provemei.t, is most impressively incumbent. Moi>« 
tesquieu has, with truth, observed, that u countries 
are not cultivated in proportion to their fertility, but 
to their liberty.'' 

i he -\thei.ians, among the first of the Greeks 
who acquired a free government, and the polish of 
civilization, and science, were lamed for their know* 
ledge in agricuirure. Xenophon, one of their dis- 
tinguished citizens and celebrat.d historians, has 
many ages ago remarked that u Agriculture is the 
nursing mother of the arts, For, where it succeeds 
prosperously, there the arts thrive : but where the 
earth necessarily lies uncultivated, there the other 
arts are ex. met." 

In the earl) periods of the Roman Republic, when 
liberty was a substantial blessing, and not an empty 
sound, the highest praise that could be given to. any 
citizen, was to sav of him, " that he well cultivated, 
his spot of ground." And the leading propensities 
of her greatest men, were to cast off their r >bes of 
statr. — Jay aside their truncheons, and ensigns of 
power — to u cultivate their snots of ground." 

Let it not be understood, tha r the ncour g oa ut 
and improvement required f or 'agriculture, is aruend- 
ed for the mere personal emolument of the farmer. 
Those "who take an incorrect or improper view o£ 



376 THE IMPORTANCE CF AGRICULTURE:" 

tht subject, allege, that "farmers are doing welt 
enough, — and want no improvement." — Every one 
acquainted with political economy, knows well, h w 
extensively it adds to the general advantage of the 
community, when the same portion of labor is made 
to produce an increased number and quantity of sup- 
plies. And eminently distinct from ail other em- 
ployments is that of the husbandman, which brings 
into existence, by a kind of creation, additions to 
the public stock, drawn from the earth- Whereas 
most, it not all other occupations, are employed, on 
materials pre-existing. Farmers are truly called, by 
She best writers on political economy, u j:he produc- 
tive class," whilst all others aie justly styled, " the 
Unproductive classes" of the community. 

It is not necessary to cite opinions, or proofs, from 
gr'-at authorities, to show that whilst able and intel- 
ligent farmers enlarge the mass of property and 
wealth in the society in which they live,— -they also 
increase the public security and happiness. 

It will be seen at once by every one who passes 
through a country productively and neatly cultivate 
ed — that quietude, contentment, morals, and ix. m- 
plarv submision to law and good government, are 
strikingly conspicuous. But in a district inhabited 
by a negligent, indolent, and ignorant papulation, 
the pictuie is disgustingly, and even dangerously, 
reversed. So that it behoves every good citizen, 
for his own security, as well as from motives of pa- 
triotism and moral obligation, to assist in furnishing 
the means of warning the negligent, stimulating the 
indolent, and enlightening the ignorant husbandman. 



iW 



HINTS SUGGESTED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT 
OF AGRICULTURE" IN N. CAROLINA, 

No. xxxvin. 

It must be the cause of deep regret to every r*af 
frienu of North Carolina to sre the state of Agricul- 
ture among us reduced to the lowest ebb — thousands 
of acre 3 of land are annually destroyed — and our 
best citizens are deserting their exhausted farms and 
emigrating to new countries. 

Agriculture, instead of being pursued upon the 
rational plan of improvement — instead of being bro't 
into notice, respected, encouraged and patronized— 
is, on the contrary, followed upon principles destruc- 
tive to the land, and therefore, destructive to the 
strength and prosperity of the Slate, and remains 
neglected and degraded. . 

Why is agriculture thus neglected and degraded 
an North* Carolina ? — Our soil and climate, (general- 
ly speaking) are equal to those of any of our sister 
states — and are happily calculated to reward the la- 
bors of trie husbandman in the most bountiful man- 
ner. Our State is intersected with nurrterous rivers, 
intended by nature as so many links to bind us more 
closely together in a friendly and commercial inter- 
course—and to encourage the cultivators of the soil 
to increase its various products, by affording them a 
quick and cheap transportation to market. In othef 
states enjoying no better natural advantages than we 
possess, we see agriculture flourishing — population 
increasing — every man bound and endeared to his 
- native spot, because from it he derives ample sub- 
sistence, comfort and happiness* 



17H IMPROVEMENT Of ACRICULTURE. 

Why is this not the case in North C rolina ? It 
may be traced u+ uo c.uises— a n the State 

of rendering her r[v rs navigable — and to a want of 
knowledge among farm. is is to the best modes of 
cultivating the soil — an3 a zeai and emulation to ef- 
fect improvv m nts therein. 

Wise goven me nts have, in all ages, br stowed par* 
ticutaY attention towards improving the navigation 
of rivers and cutting of canals, *s being objects of 
th. first imp >rtan;.e : as they particularly promote 
th j prosperity of agriculture, npon which the strength 
and i:«dc pendtncc oi evtry nation must d/pend. 

In all countries where agncultuie has flourished, 
it h.:^ b en found, chat its prosperity was piomotecl 
in propn; ti- n to the increase of internal improve- 
rrit nts. Nothing gives a more elastic spring to agri- 
culture, than r^ads^ canals, and interior navigation* 
Thev open new channels of communication — n v/ 
fronts to propert) — and stimulate improvement^, not 
only iti husbandry — but to all branches of employ- 
ment, to which labor and capital are profitably ap# 
ph. d. 

. A. D. Murphev, in his Report on internal na- 
vigation to the Legislature of 1815, pourirays, in 
just and vivid colors, the advantages which would 
accrue to North Carolina, from the improverm nt of 
her rivers. He observes, that by these improvements 
the blessings of the government are brought home 
to every man's door— that tne comforts, the conve- 
niences of life, are increased—the pablrc labor is re- 
warded — and that the w< alth of the state ke. ps pace 
wirh the wealth of its citizens— that thr value of our 
lands would immediately be doubled, and the pro- 
ducts of our agriculture increased threefold. 
.That steady habits of industry would be established 
*~ and the consequent morality which would follow 
-r^oae habits-— and not the iea&t of all, the abundant 



IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

revenue which would accrue to the State, thereby 
affording to the Legislature the means not only of 
lessening the jiublic burdens, but of providing effec- 
tually for the establishment or Schools in every part 
of this state, and of making ample provision for the 
cultivation of the sciences and the arts. 

This gentleman has not only described the advan- 
tages to be derived to our state from these improve- 
ments, but he has also devoted his talents and btst 
exertions towards -effecting them, in order that these 
advantages may be realized. He is, therefore, enti- 
tled to the gratitude and honor of North Carolina, 
and deserves to be ranked as the most eminent of 
her patriots and bene fa < tors. 

Every other citizen of this state should also feel 
bound, from every motive of patriotism and sell in- 
terest, to encourage and promote, by every i 
which lies in his power, these gnat impravem* 

2.' It has been stated that the wretched system of 
agriculture existing amo;ag us, was also owing to he 
Want of information in farmers, as to the bv st m 
of » ultivatmg the soil, or of emulation and Zeal to 
make improvements,, ■ To test tbe correctness of this 
opinion, -we need only cast our eyes ouj- the 
and observe thousands of acres of land completely 
Worn out, washed into gullies, and turned >>,ut as a 
common — fields and farms in a state of wretched 
foulness — producing scanty crops hardly worth the 
labor of cultivation — -.he system of farming itself be* 
ing one of exhaustion and impoverishment, instead 
of renovation and improvement. That the proprie- 
tors of the c^ii in this r tate, should have left the sub- 
ject of agriculture so long in a state o£ almost total 
neglect and inattention, has always been to me, not 
only a source of poignant regret, .rut of utter aston- 
ishrnent. No 1-n rs of our countn 

^nd a great proportion do not equal thera^ in intell> 



ISO IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

gence, education <^r mental acquirement* Yet they 
have suffered the activation of the soil, upon which' 
not only their own subsistence ar.d haziness de- 
pend, but that cf- their posterity, to remain wi 
change or amelioration, fiem generation t > g 
tion, 

I mention not these ihi gs with reproach Kit with 
the deepest regret^ for, as a cj \ r orth-C 

lina, I feel deeply interes'ecj in the prosperity of her" 
Agriculture, upon which her strength: independ nee 
and importance, as a slat :, must dep re', 

lucre is no method h\ which the imp ovenrnt of 
Agriculture in North- Carolina could b- so effertu- 
all;* ac ieyecT, as by the establishment i i Soch ties for 
promoting fhe knowledge of its principles, and en- 
couraging and exemplifying its best modes of prac- 
tice, in all quarters of ihe state. Each- >onid 
provide a veil selected library. Agriculture should 
be the leading subject. Selection!* From the ries't 
writers on husbandry, mlglrt he introduced as school- 
books, to nip.lv- e eatly impivssions on young minds. 
Other subjects may be interspersed in those lib>-a> 
ries, to tniic. our farmers and their families'to read ; 
and thus conquer their antipathy to what they con- 
temptuously call, book-rWhrving; 

Premiums" for excelling, and honorary notices^ 
would rouse and reward a spirit of emulation, which 
is the great source of improvement. All subjects of 
difference- — especsalh on political questions, should 
be avoided; and Agriculture be considered the ral- 
lying point ot good citizenship. 

The establishment of Agricultural Societies in 
o'hr States and Countries, has been attended with 
the greatest ges. 

England has niade most rapid improvements in 
agriculture since the establishment of the numerous- 



IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE* IS! 

fcgrlculturaj societies, .-, hich arc uuw scattererj over 
thai kingdom. 

Th Philadelphia Society edtahlished at PhHadel- 
| i k- .lire Society at PiUs-fieid, (. .-».-■.,.} 

isc'tvs Society yt Bosiou, are < 
great good fi j arts of our country. 

These soci ties, by circularise pamphlets and 
book** on Agri'.u'ture among the people — and the 
two lattel i...g premiums — have sunn: 

farmers t< imj^ovemciUs ; toin- 

cre; ^ an ns ; and to pn duce the greatest indus- 
try, goOcl management* 

' y-j luL discoveries in the 

mechai icai rii pai tment, iri retcn nc> to piou^us, har- 

,cr cleaning whejst, mrU lor 

thrtTsryng ' ■ s h>r cutting to chaff, 

k . mm h <\\ fhc) havt also piomo- 

br<.ed or neat cattle., 

sh< . p, swine, ho«sc»a and mules. 

Ti •• se si - also aH",.Vt r.ed tht ir fellow 

citizens fronp or of an —and nave 

ed into them a spirit ot useful cnqni»y, and an 

.order., and pers vering spirit'ibi •ement.-- 

•! it of 
- <> d s'n prac- 

— im- 
cuttn ating i • m — inc 
qi • workmai d ma- 

nufactures— n $j est crops, ac- 

vi wed \ min '■ b committees, making 

pr> g'r. sb for th'it \ of A;:ri- 

cuKuial irr .. ■ r.t, tu.o nim.n a ily exem- 

plary, 1 ha ■.. irticul .1 in s 

the grtai and ' s which I a>v,e re; 

.from ilet-t,i:. ■ » sc Societies, in ci r 

that it may hav^ a tendency to arouse die people of 



182 IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

this State to the establishment of such highly useful 
institutions. 

This subject certainly merits the attention of our 
best and most distinguish citizens ; and, I trust, 
that they will clear the way and pursue the object 
with patriotic. zeal. 

Many great improvements in Agriculture must be 
made in 'his State, toproduce-a change tor the bet- 
ter. Our worn-out and exhausted lands are to be 
improved ; swamps and marshes are to be drained 
6 verted either into tillage or grass — our piney 
barrens are also to be converted into cultivation, or 
into some kind of grass adapted to such soil. 

There is no system so likely speedily to reclaim 
our exhausted lands, as inclosing, combined with the 
use of plaster and clover. 

By inclosing lands and ex :iu ding grating from 
them, they will soon fhr w uf* a luxuriant coat of 
vegt'ation and growth of bushes, which will shade 
the ground from the .scorching rays of the sun ; a ;d 
by turning under the former with the plough and us- 
ing the latter tor filling up gulii.-s. such binds u ill 
Improve under this system beyond the expectations 
of the most sanguine imagination. But if plaster and 
red clover are used in combination witn inclosing, 
exhausted lands are speedily reclaimed and brought 
into good heart for the pr d lction of any crop. This 
fact is so fully confirmed by the expei lence of thou- 
sands in the different parts of Virginia and Penn- 
sylvania, that to doubt it, would be to doubt truth 
itself. 

Many in those parts of our union recollect the for- 
lorn situation of their old sett'em.nts, before the 
plaster and clover husbandry was introduced and be- 
came general; who have m w the en eiaMe happiness 
of viewing their fields ti<a barrenness 

to fertility, and grown fruitfui«aud durably profitable 



IMPROVEMENT OE AGRICULTURE. 183 

under the labors of their own hands, by means of 
these iwu great auxiliarits to our agricultural pros- 
perity. 

Among the advantages which would accrue to our 
State from the improvement if our rivers, would be 
th use and cheapness v ith which Plaster oi Paris 
and lime could n- procured by our fanners, for the 
purpose of improving their lands. 

To aid these improvements, the grasses should be 
brought m re generally into cuiii^ / us 5 

they have hitherto been too much, or I might say, 
almost entirely neglected. By cultivating them, we 
should raise more bread arid more meat* b) 
vating them, in prepaiinu: m- a . 

standing pastures furs ock 

exclude the tooth and the ho*»( from ..1 .>r. 1 
and thus rapidly facilitate their in. em under 

the inclosing syst.m. 

The present mode of supporting stock is princi- 
pally from the corn house. ]J\ n cul- 
ture of glasses-, the stock is maintained (ii w< 1! n ain- 
tathed) at more than double theeXpenst thai M n 
be by a proper attention to grass i am .0, at 
the same time reduced to poverty^ fha iher- 
wise he enriched by such atl 

Among the many artificial grasses, w.hkh trve re- 
cent improve nu nts in Agrieultun ha*< mto 
cultivation, there are several which w". io 
be well adapted to our soil and chm «'. r ^ids 
grass, >ed tog, orchard gPassVand tai 1 
grass — -he two former for w< I and low lands uud 
the two latter for high and dr\ places, v\ < uld va- 
luable acquisitions to cverv North- Carolina farm. 

16 



184 
INDIAN CORN. 

No. XXXIX. 

Indian corn, or maize, is the most valuable crop in 
.cultivation among us, in whatever point of view it is 
considered. It not only produces a greater quantitv of 
grain product for man than any other crop, but 
also of vegetable matter for beasts and the earth. It 
is not only the most, valuable, take it with all its ad- 
vantages, but it is of all crops, generally the most 
certain. It defies drought and wet, and if it fails, 
some most uncommon seasons or circumstances occur. 
It necessarily rt quirts the soil to be k» pt. clean ; and 
is consequently the best crop to subdue a stubborn, 
or clean a foul soil. It forces us to farm well, which 
renders it the be-st preparatory crop for small grain 
of anv other An eminent agricultural writer* has 
placed the high value of corn in a conspicuous tight ; 
he correctly terms it both ' meal, meadow and ma- 
nure ,* to its right to the first title, almost every 
tongue in the largest portion of the United Sta es 
can testifv ; to the second, an exclusive reliance on 
it for fodder or hay, in a great district of country 
during two centuries, gives conclusive evidence ; but 
the exhausted state of this same country disapproves 
its claim to the third, or disallows anv pretension of 
its inhabitants to industry or agricultural skill. '— 
The general opinion appears tn be i Pertained among 
farmers that corn is an exhausting crop, than which 
nothing can be more inc rrert. The reasons for this 
opinion are to be charged to the ignorance or unskil- 
fulness of farmers in estimating the value of corn, 

f Col. John Taylor — see his Aratc-. 



INDIAN CORN. 185 

or their manner of cultivating it, and not the plant 
itself. Indian corn being a very pownful plant, is 
capable of contending with an impoverished soil ; and 
when tolerable cultivated, will remunerate the far- 
nur on. grounds incapable of produ mg crops of al- 
most any other description, equally valuable, and the 
far irier, ahus s thi c plant as an impoverishes because 
it continues faithful until the last dying g<»sp of the 
soil, which his avarice has destroyed. In determin- 
ing whether * crop of any kind improves or impo- 
verishes the soil, we must consider, the offal or ve- 
getablu matter which it afford*, as carefully returned 
back to the soil in the form of manur , and whether 
this will not compensate for the nutriment drawn 
from the earth in t*n< ite of the cro; . I 

think According to tins principle $hat Indian corn, ia- 
stead of b 'Kid to 

01 c mp ins ?n'g crop* to the ear h. 
sir r croo which > ieitls sr> great a quan- 
tity of . r as this ; in iis 

it far « . xc-eds that of any other grain crop: 
but to the ^: ■ to he, added, its bLidts, tups, 

shucks and cobs, each of which will nearly balance 

the Inter bestoived on the land by any other crop 

ad of restoH'K;- to the earth in the form of ma- 
nure, the vast Quantity of litter afford d bv Indian 
corn, we have suffered it to waste and perish, and 
have continued to cultivate this plant for two centu- 
ries past, without giving it hardly one dust of ma. 
mire, cr the land any rest which produced it; and 
finding that Indian corn would grow year after year 
without manure, the destructive practice of cultivat- 
ing it in this way has been continued, until the fields 
on which it grew have been ruined, and we have un- 
justly transferred from ourselves to an innocent plant, 
cause of their impoverishment^ 



18G IXDIAN CORS. 



As surprising as it may seem to some, yet it may 
fee safely assorted, that there is no < r p within the 
h of the farmer, which is so w< 11 calculated to 
improve an exhausted farm as the cultivation of In- 
dian corn. With good cultivation, an acre of wctf- 
manured land,- \\ ill seldom produce less than fifty 
bushels to the arte, a product which is no greater to 
the space than that yielded by any otru-r grain crop. 
T^e gr;un is not onlv in greater proportion to the 
space on which it grows than other graims, hut the 
r< si of the plant is in greater proportion to the grain, 
tli • • the r£st of any ot u er -grain plant. The stra.v 
itF of the smaller grams, is in w -igiit but at out 
one hall or the grain; whereas tht c* rn- stalk, with 
^a*>pnrt' --iv:ot less than thn e times, 

and if taken early fn m the .field .\ t h ss 

than four or five times the weight of the grain be- 
longing to it. The foddel: furnished fn m an 
of luxuriant corn, irav he' mtity and 

ty^as equal to a ton of good hay — the tops and 
shucks qo largely tow support of cattle in 

the winter txonths. a.i d the refuse of them in supply- 
ing a great deal of litter for the farm yard. But it 
is the stalks of corn which make it so valuahle a re- 
source for re- fertilizing the soil, and as such they 
merit particular attention, as fcrnfthhig such an 
abundance of vegetahle matter fe<r m mure. 

There is another consideration which deserves to 
be mentioned in estimating the value of Indian corn 
as an improving crop, viz. the grain part of its pro- 
duct being mostly and every where distant from na- 
vigation, is consumed on the farm on which it is 
made, from which source will also proceed the great- 
est quantity or the richest and most valuahle manure. 
Would it therefore be hazarding too mcch lo say, 
that where a level surface, or the mode of cultivate- 
5xig a hilly one, prevents the rains Srvm carrying off 



INDIAN CORN. l37 

the soil, a restoration of an entire crop of Indian 
corn, in the form of manure, to the space producing 
it, would replace the fertility consumed by the cropj 
and maintain a perpetual productiveness I 



INDIAN CORN, 

Continued. 

No. XL.- 

The modes of cultivating Indian corn vary in dif- 
ferent districts and 'States, which arc no doubt influ- 
enced by difference of soil and climate. The man- 
ner of cultivating Indian corn with which the author 
is experimentally acquainted, and which is now 
spreading through many of the adjoining states, is 
according to the system detailed in Taylor's Arat r> 
This system has been fully tested by experience, and 
is found to possess so many advantages over the old 
modes of cultivating corn, as to render it highly pro* 
bable that it will in a short time entirely supercede 
them. The brevity which I have prescribed to my- 
self in these essays, will only permit me to collect 
and arrange some of the most leading features of this 
system, referring the reader to that book for a more 
detailed account. 

The corn is drilled and cultivated in ridges which 
are ploughed but one way, and that in the direction 
of the ridges; cross-ploughing being entirely aban- 
doned. The ridges are five and a half feet apart 
Vfiih deep water furrows between them. The field- 



183 INDIAN CORN. 

being once thrown into the position of ridges and 
furrows, never requires to he laid off again. The 
mid die, or water luirow, is left as deep as possible, 
when the cuhurr of the corn is finished ; and when 
the field comes again into corn, the list or ridge (by 
reversal) is made upon this middle water furrow, so 
that there is a regular alternity between ridges and 
furrows. 

If the field has never been thrown into the posi- 
tion of ridges and iurrows, it is best to flush up the 
ground, viz. to plough it into a fit suiface in the 
fall or winter, and list i ; in the spring; by which 
rr.ians rhe whole of the gr u d will be entirely and 
Well broke up, win h co.ld not be so well done by 
lidgir.g up a flat surface. A field already in the po- 
sition of ridges and furrows is fallowed up or re- 
versed in the following manner* A large mould 
board plough diawn by two or more horses, and cut- 
ting a sod twelve inches wide and six or eight deep 
is run on each side of the old waUr furrow and rais- 
es a list or ridge in its centre, on which to plant the 
corn. These two furrows will leave a :»lip.- of the 
old ridge, which is split open and the eaah thrown 
each way by a large trowi 1-h.oe pl< ugh having a coul- 
ter on the point, two mouldboards, drawn by two or 
more horse3 ar-d cutting ten inches deep. If the soil 
is stiff or tough, the first plough ridges on the old 
water furrow, with four furrows (two on either side.) 
This ploughing ought to be done irr-the fall or early 
.iter ; in the spring at the time of planting, orr 
the summit of the ridge or list, a de^p and wide fur- 
row is rim with a trowel hoe plough and two mould 
boards^ in "'bich the corn is plant) d and covered witif 
tfct I'd i between two and three inches deep. The 
distance at which the corn is to be planted will be 
regulated entirely by the quality of the soil, and must 
b«£ Left to the farmcrV: dement. In land 



INDIAN CO/ 

ever capable of proclucirg forty bushels to the acre, 
it may l>e planted at five ieet six inches (the distance 
of the ridgts apart) by two feet nine inches, leaving 
two stalks in sandy and three in still lands. In low 
ds tfu coin may regularlv stand at the distance 
:n eight to eighteen inches, according to the 

quality of the soila 

!♦ e fhst tillage given to the corn after planting, is 
bv running a deep furrow by a large mould-board 
plough on each side of the coin. As the corn is ve- 
ry low, this furrow must be run so far from it, that 
the earth raised by the mould board will not quite 
reach it, but be kit on each side, so as to form a 
narrow trough on the ridge iia which the corn stands, 
to be filled up by the hand hoeing immedi 
lowing thie fuirow. Thenceforth the till:;. 
be penormed by the use ol skimmers or har- 
rows, and of a central, deep and wide Jurrow by 
the trowel- hoe plough and two mould boards, to be 
repeated when necessary. The whole to be conclud- 
ed with a harrow weeding or hand hoeinp akihg the 
sbpe in the direction of the tow, not kept completely 
clean by the . - 

In the cultivation of Indian corn, there are two 
things particularly to be attended to by all those 
whose object is to make good crops, viz. manuring 
and deep ploughing, There is no erop which is as 
speedily and as much benefited by manure as Indian 
sorn. The good crops of corn which are generally 
obtained from ordinary land prove hovrv vs ty these 
crops may I e increased by making the land richer by 
manure. The sudden growth ot corn upon • narse 
ma.-.ure, demonstrates the vast benefit to be derived 
from litter as coarse and hard as com stalks, v n 
whilst their degree of putrefaction is rrtconsidef able ; 
a fact whieh should induce us to save and . .vers 
fcvery dust of its offal into manure, and manure iu&lv 



£90 INDIAN CORN. 

]y for com. Inks cultivation, therefore, the fifest 
improvement re-quired, i=> to m inu'rt i at the usual 
rate bj other cr< p s ; and to be able fairly to estimate 
its value; the land should be in good heart when it 
receives this manunvg 

The second is tp plough deeper than we plough at 
present. The first ploughing, which is to answer the 
end both of a fallow and a list or ridge on which to 
plant -the corn, is by far the most matt rial part of the 
system, and indeed, the only good security for its 
success. The ploughing must be deep and well ex- 
ecuted, so as to overturn into the old Water furrow, 
a considerable mass of the litter produced by enclos- 
ing, whether weeds or clover. 

The Indian corn is a little tree and has roots cor- 
respondent to its size, which strike deep into the 
soil both to procure nourishment and to strengthen 
itself against severe winds — It therefore requires a 
deep pasture— and the deeper the ground is plough- 
ed, the more moisture will arise and be retained, 
which will prove of essential benefit to the crop in 
seasons of drought. Deep ploughing also saves labor 
in the cultivation of the crop, whereas shallow plough- 
ing increases it. 

By shallow ploughing, the seeds of grass and 
Weeds are kept near the surface ready to sprout up 
on the occurrence of every warm and moist season, 
when they appear in millions, and instantly rt quire 
the plough, however recently used. By deep plough- 
ing, if skilfully done, thtse seeds which abound most 
near the surface, are buried so deep as to appear 
slowly and in small numbers, so that the repetition 
of ploughing is far less necessary. One or two deep' 
ploughings, according to the nature of the soil, will, 
with the subsequent use of skimmers or harrows, 
serve to make the crop of corn ; in place of which 



LIVE STOCK. 191 

four or five shallow ploughing^ with the same aid, 
might often destroy it. — [See A'Gte C] 



LIVE STOCK, 



No. XLI 

The possession and proper management of live 
stock, arc perhaps amongst the most important obr 
jects wh'nh claim the attention ol' the farmer, as up- 
on these the fertility and prosperity of farms may be 
said to depend. The mere possession oj \ ajia 

but little, IF they are not properly managed ; hence 
tin I EC r bbject will be found to constitute their 

ief value, not only in bestowing fertility upon the 
farm, bu profit to the owner. A farmer, in carrying 
@n an improved mode eJ cultivation without live 
ato; k, would be in, the same predicament with a m< r- 
chant who wished to carry on an extensive business 
without a cent of capital ; they are in ; prin- 

cipal agents, when properly managed, by which farms 
are rendered productive and profitable, and conse- 
quently are an indispensable auxiliary in every good 
system of agriculture. It has been observed by Ar- 
thur Young, a distinguished agriculturalist, that 
u that country, that farm, will be most improved, and 
most productive, upon which the greatest quantity 
of stock is kept. This holds good of an acre, a 
field, a farm, a district, a province, or a kingdom. " 
4 Kept' here alludes to their being well kept, viz. 

(providing a due quantity of food proportioned to the 
number of stock. The value of stock consists in 
making the land more productive in every thing by 



192 LIVE STOCK. 

the vast quantity of manure; which they afford ; but 
to make « hem y it Id this quantity of manure, it is in- 
dispensable that they be well kept throughout the 
year. The manure from a fat herd of stock is far 
more fertilizing than that from a lean one; and the 
advantages arising from them on this account are in 
every respect infinitely greater. The propriety of 
feeding or fattening stock, on the farm with a propor- 
tion of its produce, has been well establish d in the 
most improved agricultural districts. The vast 
quantity of the richest manure which they thus yield, 
imparts its fertilizing power to every part of the 
farm in its turn. If the crop of com is consumed 
b*-- tfet stock on the farm, there is no question but 
that the subsequent crops of corn and wheat will be 
increased by the application of Hit manure it will 
fo : i ,h, which excess may of itself pay a good price 
for the corn so consumed. In Great-Brhain, the ad- 
vantages and propriety of this practice are so fully 
understood, that there is never more than from one 
third to one half oi their farms appropriated to grain, 
fast produce of potatoes, turnips, cabbages, and 
grass, ar. npplied to the feeding' of stock on their 
In this way, they make more grain than they 
\v. :!,j do if a greater proportion of the land was 
made to produce it. The benefit to the farmer and 
to the land is therefore so well understood there, 
that it has become an agricultural maxim, that when- 
ever a iarmer discovers he can be as well paid, by 
cultivating food for cattle as for man, he should pre- 
fer it because of the increased quantity oi manure it 
gives. It is not intended, by these remarks, to con- 
vert all our arable into grass land, or that the quan- 
tit) of grass is to be increased by\ diminishing the 
product of grain. Stock is recommended as an aux- 
iliary, whose agency is to be made to contribute to 
the increase of the grain crop, and to be subservient 



I 



LIVE STOCK. 193 

to that object. There i* however little apprehension 
that the cultivation of artificial grasses is so tar to 
extend as to occupy all our arable space ; their total 
neglect at present forbids even the existence of such 
an idea. The cultivation of artificial grasses is so 
intimately connected with the maintenance and value 
of stock, that a few further remarks on them here, 
with an account of the present mode of grazing 
stock, and a proposed substitute, will close this num- 
ber. 

The practice of grazing our arable fields, which 
undergo such severe cropph g without receiving any 
manure cannot be ton much rt pr< bended. The pas- 
turage from Bjjch ti ids must be light anrl scontv, 
nni the s ^k little benefited, wnile the injury to the 
land is K reat. These fi.-lds return too quu-kl) to k he 
plough for the farm 1 r to enjoy the advantages of 
grasses sown on their surface, even were they rich 
enough to produce it ; but in their exhausted state, 
(as ia now too generally the case) t l A -ytrcquire the 
nurture of enclosing to bring them into*good heart 
to produce grass, which rrquii; land to bear 

and sustain it. A. substitute :v. t ind lor this 

impr >per mode of management, by appropriating a 
part of the farm to arable and a pa' 
each part mav tht n be managed according to the 
prin jples calculated to promote the ends in vi~w T , 
whereby a clashing of pursuits will be avoided and 
tht farm treed from a double taxation of tillage a id 
grazing, until it becomes sufficiently improved to 
b r it. The arable to be under om incl ith- 

out cross fences, to enipv all the benefits of incli sing, 
and the grass land to be divided into lots for a suc- 
cession of grazing. A spirited and persevering n- 
dustrv in the i ultivati m of artificial grass s, will be 
found to be theLlnosteff ctual mnd< ■ md 

| increasing live slock, and consequently of adding fer- 



11)4 LIVE STOCK. 

tility and productiveness te our farms. By grass, 
stock is pr .duccd ; oy stock, manure; by manure, 
grain and grass again. By the cultivation of artifi- 
cial grasses, a new era will be introduced into our 
sy c tcm of agriculture. Winter food, and the conse- 
quent value of live Mock, will be increased many fold. 
Tlnrir c'iliiv;vion will not be merely valuable in 
its'. il, but wiii spread iis beneficial influence over 
every other branch of husbandry. I;, will supply 
what has a- e« regarded as the greatest desi- 

deratum arnotig tinners, a flouble, perhaps a treble 
%qnantity of pu r *cent manure; and without any 
exaggeration, it will be said to have added a second 
productive season to the year. Even during the se- 
:-cst winter, a part of our fields will be covered 
•with the richest verdure; aad the result of their 
cidtiv:-' be, tha r the number of ' (nil live stock 

wii r- increased, Uiut-theirValue and pro- 

lit trebly advanced. 






LIVE STOC 
Continued. 

No. xnr. 

The live stock generally embraced on a {d, 
\ first of the working animals, cmipris:.' 

mules and oxen ; and secondly of cattle, she< p and 

hogd. These will be treated of in the order in whit 
are nanvd. 

The great number of horses in our country is a 

-us and sore evil ; and the vf;*stefod ia 

ich they are fed, makes 'u much mor. ;is. 

They eat up the'brcad dY.i*igrted !>r m u- 

luous horse ought to be tfispcnslbd die 

uriber of sue ', ta* 

Jki ■ g into consideration i> ch 

tht\ are fed) consume thousands rri 

wnfrh might b; saved to the land, to 

. Tt for rational creatures. 1 h- i be 

nee, in rmrki ur 

roads hater .. j fr 

Wful 1 render an . -y, 

n-)W kent eX'-lu^!'. f) I r wa . At in 

jng might also be mad< in fei ding h 
a little attention to ih ■' manner in which their 
should be pr- paredi 
Every kind of gram upon which horses are f^d 
Id be chopped or ground ; as by adopting this 
pr'a tice, at least one half and frequently wo thirds 

■<\ by it. It may be affirmed, that 01 
of corn, ground and mix. d with cut straw of any 



19b' tlVE STOCK. 

tind will go as far in supporting or improving the 
condition of a horse, as three ears given in the gr.tin. 
The practice of grinding Indian corn in the cob, 
to powder, for the purpose of horse feed, is now 
common in many parts of the union, particularly in 
Pennsylvania, among the German class of our fel- 
low citizens. Those industrious and economical 
men are ever attentive to the health and general wel- 
fare of their farm stock, and readil) adopt any mea- 
sure calculated to promote either object; and as they 
are convinced of the nourishing qualities of the cob, 
and the economy of the practice of using it as an 
article oi food, they have encouraged the general 
ere- tion of the necessary apparatus, in the mills in 
their different settlements, for the purpose of grind- 
ing the grain and cob together. If those owning 
mills in this section of the country were to erect the 
nect^sary apparatus fo grinding corn in the cob, they 
would merit and receive the thanks and support of 
everv farmer for effecting such a saving as these 
mills would produce in the .food of h >rses. Indian 
corn is of itself too nourishing, and too heating as a 
Co* - ant article of diet for horses, and if fed alone, a 
sufficient quantity cannot be given to them to pro- 
duce the stimulus of distension, which is as necessa- 
ry for a working horse, or even to man, as nourish- 
ment) without great expence, and at the same time 
endangering the health of the animal. Hence >he 
utility of grinding the cob in the grain, or ol mixing 
the c<^rn meal with a portion of cut straw, and coarse 
ly ground rye or shorts; the powder of the corn 
cobs, how* v r, does not act entirely by distension, it 
also contains much nutriment, ai>d by being mixed 
with the corn meal, makes it more mild and nourish- 
ing. Rve. or f Jl barley, ground and mix^d with cut 
str. -w, also constitutes an excellent food lor horses. 
Horses fed upon cut straw mixed with meal, is known 



LIVE STOCK. 19'/ 

by all those who have tried it, to keep them in a 
finer and more healthy condition than any other food 
which can be given them. 

By means of cetting machines, a gn at economy has 
been effected in the use of straw and hay. It has 
been ascertained by accurate experiments, that one 
pound of straw or hay cut up fine and given to stock, 
particularly horses, will go farther than two pounds' 
given whole ; a saving ot siu h magnitude as to in- 
duce everv man who has not these useful machines, 
to obtain them immediately if he has any stock to 
feed. Bv grinding all the grain given to our hors- 
es, an immense saving is not only made in the grain 
itself, hut extends to the straw and ha) 1 used with it, 
and effects the enorm >us saving of 6n"e half in these ; 
and by adopting this practice, a great Sviving of la- 
bor will a'so be effected in cult vating enall graia 
as a food for horses, instead of Indian corn. 

A- small mill shoul i be ejected on ever* farm to 
operate by hand, or by horse or water power, to ^i i'nd 
any sort of grain for the stock, 

Horses and mules ought to inhabit a lot having a 
stabLe and stream, "and to be excluded wholly from 
grazing. During two months of the summer, they 
may be- soiled on clover cut" daily and permitted to 
lie six hours in the sun, to prevent the slabbers and 
their being hoven. When the clover fails, hay and 
fodder will succeed, which will for the balance of 
the year keep them in dry forage. By being kept 
up the whole year, they will always be ready for 
work when wanted, and the labor of collecting them 
from pastures will be saved in the summer, whereby 
the loss of the morning so material at this season of 
the year, and in a warm climate, will be avoided ; by 
littering the stables and yards well in winter, they 
will make a considerable part of the manure to be 
" i d out in the spring, and by this mode of ma* 



OXEN. 



; , the working stock, exclusive of their ix~ 
hor, - cribe largely to the renovation cf the 

rishment by grazing. 






No XL1IT. 

4 to the recommendation of.the best mod 

i ig it, de^rve 

\y irugalit) in the consumption 

Cc.« Tik ;.me- 

in tiit cu 
Lne catlh, and the other i is oi hua- 

.; attention jd- our 
jges* 
Uufc there is in this country a strong pi>; amst 

this.?.. J, ~\vi t;is ; (list thing to be 

cot o n i hdt i i ■ . . f the 

ox will soon . 

It is a ■ :h cann» roved, that oxen 

me sort of work, are equal to horses ; in these 
cases, they certainly ought to be preferred, because 
they are kept at considerably less t i and less 

casualties attend them. Although oxen cannot well 
be used to the entire exclusion of horses, yet there 
is, undoubtedly, a great deal of work that they w< uld 
do as well, particularly in carting and all heavy w 
In most instances- they are nearly equal to he 
and in their support they are infinitely cheape^ 
Since fell and winter ploughing .for the sucee 
year's corn crop, are coming i 'to general use, the 
■Kalue cf oxen will be more highly ap^reci 



oXEK. ! Sc- 

at this cool season of the year they may be usefully 
employed at the plough in fallowing up the laid, or 
:.d in hauling in the corn crop, while the hor- 
ses arc at this work. The late President Madison, 
iff his address before the A'grieuhural SocicU of 
Albermarle, has some new and valuable remarks on 
oxen, which claim the particular attention oi every 
husbandman. 

44 I cannot bur consider it as an error in our hus- 
bandry, that oxen arc too little used in the place uf 
horses. EvefV fair c empamon oi rhe exptn. 
the two animals, favors, a preference ol the ox. But 
the < ire umstarce particularly reconimtnding him, 
is, that he can be • d when at work, by 

and hav ; whilst the horse requires gram and much 
of it ; aria ill gene rail'. him, Ii 

corn, the crop which requires most labour, ai 
Krom ii,'. in st estirna I 
been enabled to form*, mor Behalf oi thi 

m'e| hyhoises ; including the u'n'g] 
ones m , and not Itss tha .If by other than 

sure horses, ©y getting fr sumption,, 

the labour, and of the wear ol the land, 
TV oid d be saved, or rather mote tnan one half; for 
farms one hall of tin corn crop grows on 
ore .ban two filths, and sometimes a sn : 
proportion, ol the cultivated fi^O.s ; aid the more 
fertile fieldsTVOuld of course be retained for cultiva- 
tion. Every one can figure to himself, the 
and conveniency of a revolution which would so 

reduce the extent o( frvs Cornfields ; and 
stitute lor the labour bestowed on^tbem, the i 
easy task ling pasturage and hay. But will" 

not the ox himsdf when at work require grain 

:11 as the horse ? Certainly much less, if ar.;S 

*1J? 



2C0 

'Judging from my own observation, I should say.,- 

that a plenty of good grass, or good hay, will suffice 

without grain, where the labor is neither constant 

But I ieel entire confidence in sa\ ing, 

doable set of oxen alternately at work, and 

Therefore half the time at rest, migbt be kt pt in good 

-hi without other food than a plenty uf good gra?s 

or good hay. 

** And as this double set would. 'double the supply 

beef, tallow and t-.6ff is found in 

.: consideration for a double consumption oft 

• id of fo. neraily made to the' 

- are, 1. That he is less tractable tfhan the horse. 

That he docs not bear I 3. That he 

Joes' not ai our 

;ts> 
g the pro die 

: 

O, • -. the q* i in 

the ox is the c- H 

. 

- only vvuli loj .. ■ ~ ' oo**- 

■ 

• 

■ Greece a 

■ . in ai - 
t d, 

. 
i 
: armies. And ii 

i, oxis ( ' 



.;3 ib the 

an otcasi< 

green food. The ierrrH 

heated b) 

tvill readU 

tior.s ; when g 

sober habit of'lalx 

The tl 

car, 

'. 

. 

■ 

5 l~ss d 
granted* 

May 

has J ' . 

" 

trips. In cor 

iHV'S StiJ I 

the short, 
on rcij 

• former 
Cases, are in 

• 

v. — la c. . . 



* C-ATT D1 

weight is di. I by the consideration, 

t Ua much greater proportion of service on the 
farm rrta^ be done by >x~d, than is no 
done; and that 1 ice of shoeing them, is lit- 

tle different from that of k( ^ ping horses shod." 
The iXfii, in siiaiin r, should be penned and fed 
r eattWj and in winter the 
sain- " ild take place, with a more torn- 

will furnisfi the same supply 
q( m M the; houses and mutes in winter, if their 

] and goj 1 with - li.c 

offal of i p. Whilst bot at work, 

;ed with the other-cattle 



Ko. XfclV. 

the breed of live stQc1>,h as necessary 
: a , as activation of a field for 

... 

-. ling fb the present improved system of 
farming, tjhere is such a connection l>etweeni the cul- 
n of ground, and i»r. cling, : and fat- 

teni rg cattle, sheep and other domestic ;mimals, that 
a man wilt make but r nt figure in rural a& 

fairs, if he does not u demand the latte? as well as 
t r. 
Our breeds- of horned cattle particularly, are too 
: )et th fid receive the pri~" 

. • ■•> if our agriculturalist. . In the 
CU U 1V « Eui , |bis subject receives 

that attention its importance demands, and to 



such perfection have th< y brought tiirir breeds 

s to r. vder them worthy to ! 
th< difl< rent parts 
them enormous prices* 

tstei u st:. 
i r( ed oi cattle, is 

importune* with tru farm erf '1 he ( 
tuu-l Societies established in those parts of tl. . 
(v i it li art' dpi. g great g'»*< 

g premiums and the "tie 

sb ws, to diffuse ft/nojig th for im- 

proving the breeds oi >mir catii 

Ip impi k«<l 

in vi w should be ^ttetided to: relit 

br< ■ ds ■ 

A breed 
bhtr, to the ilairv, 
w I 

abl< s us to 
lent with < & h o$h< i 
ft rent forms and piopo, 
ject of farmers to h 
th -ids: ai 

than* shtwv .figun ■-. 

sightly animal st y'aluitl 

as it n : 

qualities in nn\ cattle. 

The v?lue < I 
tion to the manner 
cure their dung. During the i 
the \ should r>e r 

t 



CATTI : 

loss from the evaporation of the sun and" wn 

iz t the pens, and the time they should 
stand in them before removed, will be regulated by 
the number of the cattle and their condition ; I nt in 
hot weather, the pens should not stand lo. 
two weeks bciore ploughed up, at most. In win- 
as been before observed, they should have a 
comfonaMe shelter clos*Vd at evvry point, except at 
the south, which should open into the farm 3 ard.— • 
Corn stalks are the first food given t > them ; a-":d the 
greatest duigence~sh uld be used in conveying them, 
early to the tarm yard, beearcrss they lose more from 
evaporation stanilmg in the field, than the other arti- 
cles of food, viz. the shucks, tops, Ste. which should 
be reserved for later periods. 

Th ca : tle should be employ d in manuring the 
distant parts of the farm, while the horses and .other 
domestic stock arc manuring at h >me. 

Tne farm pens of the fanner should be situated 
With an eve ;o the convenience of the field from 
whence the stalks are ^ to be hauled, and that to be 
manured and cultivated tb^- ensuing year. It is bet- 
ter to make a lain o\ considerably length to conduct 
th= cattle to yt&ttr than to omit this convenience. 

Many farms too unfortunately abound with par- 
cels of exhausted land, which are turned out or are 
trhinciosed to recover what improvement they can : 
t&ese lands may be enclosed as pasturage for cattle ; 
and by taking in some woodjand, they Will afford to 
the cattle, in the spring and summer, shrubs and 
coarse grass sufficient to constitute _j.olerable good 
and far better than that from arable or culti- 
vate d fit -Ids which are generally scanty of grass nm'l 
i ds the fall ; and if meadows n provid- 

ed for grazing in the fall, they will sustain the cattle 
the periocFarrives for their being put ut* in their 
. cation. 



HOGS, 



rnent of cattle, have been thrown out for the conside- 
ration of those who may hesitate to adopt the inclo- 
sing system under the apprehensions, that if their 
stock are excluded from grazi g their arable fields^ 
no other resource will be leit for them. 



HOGS. 



No XLV. 



No domestic animal contributes so largely to our 
support, and that of the laborers employed on our 
farms, as the hog ; and it is fortunate that none mul- 
tiplies so fast, grows so rapidly, is as thrifty, hardy, 
and as easily raised. The hog may be raised upon 
almos\ am thing which the farm produces; but In- 
dian corn, clover and pumpkins, are tb< principal re- 
sources ior his support in that part or the country 
with which the author is acquainted. 'Eury one 
knows the value of Indian corn as a food tor hogs; 
jet the common mode of giving it to th m, particu- 
larly when put up to latteis is not the most economi- 
cal. Soaked corn is lar better than hard corn, as it 
jatlens hegs more spf eddy, and requires consi< i ra- 
bl\ 1 ss ; when hard corn is given to them, it is not 
digested, and a considerable portion is discharged 

with the dung, whereby a great loss is sustained * 

To a\ id this loss all the com given to trV,n should 
be soaked unil sou' ; to effect which let th i- be a 
numb* ; of barrels sufficient to provide in succession, 
according to th<: warmth of the vv atlur, theTt chief 
food in this state, with the addition of the solo- water 
•to drink as each barrel is emptied. As so the time 



sary to soak the com, no special dire 

Is on the Umpcra ure of .he 

it, hoWev-er, to be so much soaked, 

which is expcrienf eel 

i . , :md is easily discovered 

Nothing i-> better tor h gs 

■ wit n nil by them. Ii is 

iat during sumnrit r, if 

to i;un at large, and yet m«:ke bai a 

ifferently from 

i cut and gvtn to hugs, 

light. They was'-/ as 

nut r' tosh it in this way, 

lly p i ish — 

. it run 01 .ltd nirve a ring in the 

he nose to p? v in then! from routing* 

rid requires more 

- 

rs. lilt injury to clover by 

an that ; 

them fr >m v 

iviil materially itijureaclpVer fi id iron-. 

:>:<■ t O t) :. 

s t ction of Vi. p 
Who turn i i g o'l 

rajSthf principal Biftpport-*ri th 

s in the vtai m b< as u. An : I .d to 

so lat ov) clover, that it i 
iise pigs on thatacc 

ison ot th 
trum ci: .i Do cure those ch 

been att - ^ore 

. 

,; : lSociet : . 



tre 



re- 



3?utrrpkin9 also constitute a valuable and nutritious 
food lor hogs. As soon as they begin to ripen, the. 
hogs should be put up and confined to a pen, and 
fed with as many as they can tat, cut up in troughs 
wiih the addition of a meal of corn a day. 

The dung of hogs deserves particularly to be sav- 
sd, as it is a very rich and fat manure, and so cool 
as to ferment very slowly. It is so rich and oily as 
to be double in value to cattle's dung. This is so 
strong a manure, that it answers well, when mixed 
with a large proportion of eaith, weeds or straw. It 
is almost incredible bow great a quantity of good ma- 
mire may be obtained, by supplying a hog pen with 
rubbish to mix with the dung. 

One hundred and fifty hogs, if managed judicious- 
ly, will manure an acre of ground for every ten days, 
and gradually in a less time as they fatten to seven 
days. Previously to their being penned, on each 
acre let eight cart loads of wheat straw or other lit- 
ter be equally spread over it, and at the end of ten 
days, let the pen be removed and the ground Well 
ploughed into five and a half feet ridges. If the 
hogs are put up when the pumpkins begin to ripen, 
■which is about the last of August, and if they are 
not killed until 1st of December,, bhey will, during 
this period, have manured nearly twelve acres. I am 
confident, that if hogs are regularly penned, and 
their pens well littered, they will make far more ma- 
nure than will exceed the value of their keep; and 
that there is but little doubt, in a climate adapted to 
Indian corn and clover, they are the most profitable 
stock which can be raised. 

The little value ol sheep in this part of the coun« 
try where cotton can be raised so easily, justifies me 
in making but a few r<-m<»rks on them. Except as 

18 



. 208 

affording meat for the table at particular seasons .* 
the year, and wool for family consumption, they are 

■c an object of attend n* 

But their dung is valuable and will pay for the 
expense of their keep, if it is preserved. It is more 
fiot and fiery than that of black cattle ; it ferments 
qvrickei ; it is fitter therefore for cold, heavy lands. 
Perhaps the btst way of applying the dung of sheep 
to land, is by folding or penning them ; for in this 
method their urine is all saved, as well as their dung. 
But it ought to be turned in with the plough as soon 
as possible, that the sun and air may not deprive the 
land of it. 

Feeding off turnips with sheep is a practice much 
pursued in Europe, where that crop is cultivated 
largely. The land is manured for turnips, and re- 
ceives a second manuring from the sheep's dung and 
Urine while feeding them off, which puts the soil in 
^ine preparation for valuable grain and grass crops. 

Warm shelters or covers are necessary for hogs 
and sheep during the severity cf winter; but parti- 
cularly so for sows about to have, cr having pigs. — 
The same remark also extends to ewes and lambs f 
J)Ut more indispensably? 33 being more tender.. 






DRAINING. 



No. X 



hds to be drained are usually divided into if 

s : 1st, i . or those whi I d so' 

that the iri descei 

periy collected and conduct I 2nd, low, Hat 

and wet lands, such as command little or no fall* 

When water in descending from highlands spreads 
over a considerable spsce iri a flat or hollow, a 
should be cut in the parts of the gn 

deep or shallow according to circumstances, which 
will have the effect of throwing the water into a nar- 
row channel, and of giving it a free and unobstructed 
course ; by which means the land will be reclaimed, 
and admit of'cukivation to the borders 

It frequently occurs that a multitude of sp; 
break out at the termination of the highland, 
spread their waters over the adjacent 1 >w grounds, 
which render them useless or nhnt for cuitiv 
If. the water rises in a bold spring at the junction of 
the hills with the flat land, a clit h should be cut in 
the lowest ground in order to give it a free and un- 
obstructed channel to the stream or main drain to 
which it is tributary. If a multitude of springs ooze 
in a continued line at the junction of the high and 
flat land, a deep and wide ditch should be cut, run- 
ning along the foot of the highland, so as to intercept 
them all, which should convey the water of these 
springs into the main drain or outlet, or into one 
ying ipto it. 

Drains *o be lasting and valuable, should be coy« 
ered ; otherwise, in sandy soils, and i" many situ-a- 
ble to be filled up, or to be washed 



into gullies. Covered drains, and thereby preserv- 
ing a level, dry, caltivatable and productive surface,, 
arc every way eligible. In grounds wlv. re there is 
table declivity, a straight open ditch in the 
direction of ihe declination, is injurious and dange- 
rous ; violent floods, in such ditches, always pro- 
duce a ravine or gully. In all cases, therefore, 
where land lies on a declivity, care should be taken 
that the drains have an easy and gentle descent, 
which is generally effected by carrying them in an 
oblique or meandering direction. 

Covered drains, are not liable to the ravages of 
floods, and may be straight, without bt ing. exposed to 
the dangers to which open ditches are subject. 

Drains that are intended to be covered, should.be 
out at least three or tour feet deep, and gradually 
narrower from the top to the bottom, where they 
should not be above eight inches wide. A row of 
poles of such size as nearly, but not entirely to touch, 
ts laid on each side of the dhch at bottom. Green 
or seasoned brush, without leaves, is then packed in- 
to the ditch ; if the brush is crooked, it recer 
chop in the elbow of the crook, and is put into the 
drain with the small ends downwards and th n pres- 
sed down to the poles with the foot The brush 
should be packed to within eight or teg inches of the 
top, and then covered with foui inches of dry leaves 
or straw, and the whole of the dirt to be ret; 
and well rammed. Drains of this kind will have, 
besides the advantages mentioned, the efTe-ct o[ cur- 
ing all sour or boggy land through which they 
be cut; as the oozing water will be received by the 
straw, and trickle through the brush down to the 
cpen drain, and the wet ground will lose every bog- 
gy appearance. 

Drains of this description will last a long tirr 
tfae biush is completely suture*! against thc.cfiv*u.o£ 



the son and wind. Where rock can be bad, drains J 
of this descriptionTmay be made to last fort ver ; the 
best method is to place flat stones standing on the 
bottom and along on one side of the drain, as per- 
pendicularly as the side will admit ; then another 
row of flat stones on the opposite side, placed, with 
the top part to rest against the upright stones, in the 
form of a making a kind of angle; should this ca- 
vity be insufficient for the current of water, another 
flat stone may be placed in a reversed form, as 
by which there will be a double vacuum fully suffi- 
cient for the greatest current, 

The remainder of the drain may be filled up w'th 
stones, to within about eight inches of the surface; 
then covered with straw or leaves to prevent the earth 
from falling between the stones, and fill up the re- 
mainder with the dirt that tame out cf the drain.— 
Covered drains Which hava*"the smallest passage for 
the water at the bottom, are reputed to be the 
durable^ as the force of the water has been found 
^itllieitnt to clear away any small obstacles, ace 
bstructmg its course. 



212- 

' DRAINING. 

Continued. 

Ko. XLVII. 

The simplest mode of draining is with the plough, 
which may be used to great advantage upon fiat, stiff* 
and close land. Land of this nature generally holds 
the water -which falls upon it, it being too close to 
absorb it, until it escapes by evaporation ; and un- 
der the flat culture habit, its only use is to poison 
the air and destroy the crops which are put upon it, 
This rigid land though intended for Indian corn, is 
gent rally left unbroken till spring, by which time it 
has acquired such a degree of excessive moisture as 
to be urfit for cultivation; and the usual mode of 
ploughing it into a flat surface, tends to retain the 
^noisiure, and to promote its baking and more close 
•lidation. A mode of culture which will effect 
the draining of such land of its excessive moisture, 
vill be the only wav to render it susceptible of pro- 
ducing good crops; and ''in most cases it can be ef- 
fected by the plough. Land of this nature should 
be thrown with the plough into high ridges and deep 
v;s, and in ridges calculated for Indian corn of 
five and a half feet width, the bottom of the furrow 
may ^ ■ be made fifteen inches lower than th 
of the rtdg£< The deep furrows will have the effect 
of draining and drying the ridges and of holding all 
- fluous water they may have contained, and 
/..scent, will serve as so many ditches to 
<; fi ; but even in case of no descent, the 
ill stilt have the effect of relieving the ridges 
of a suiuvity of incis-lure, and thereby place them in 
r 



a state to fee operated on by frost. It bos elsewhere 
been observed, that land of this kind', t-\ si 
plough drainings in the fall, is of being con- 

verted into the best of our soils. The ploughing be- 
ing done in the fall or eatly in winter, is essential 
to its success; as nothing has so powerful an effect 
in subduing a stubborn soil an<l breaking down clods 
as the winter's frost. 

In low and flat land, which abounds with ponds 
and marshes, the most obvious mode of proceeding 
should be, to cut ditches! in the lowest parts of the 
ground, in order to carry vn the standing water : the 
ground then to be thrown into ridges and furrows^ 
taking care to lay them off in such a manner as that 
each water furrow shall empty into one or more of 
the ditches. 

One of the greatest errors committed by the ge- 
nerality of farmers, is the neglect of the branches 
:md creeks running through theirfarms— They pei . 
mit a slipe of woods to remain on each side of them, 
to grow up in bushes and briars, and to abound with 
a multitude of bog es — A neglect of these 

streams, not only disfigures the farm through which 
they run and indicates a slovenly cultivation, but 
Subjects the adjacent low grounds to inundation, and 
the health of their families to sickness. The chan- 
nels of few of these streams retain any appearance 
of their natural state, being every where obstructed 
by sands, bushes and rubbish, so as to form innume- 
rable putrid puddles and pooh, on the occurrence of 
every drought ; to several of which our summers 
and autumns arc liable. By stopping and spreading 
the waters of our creeks and branches, they soon 
cease to flow in droughts ; and the water which 
might at all times be earri. d off in a healthy current, 
in wet seasons overflows the adjacent grounds, and 
iti dry, poisons the air, because then eyaporatiofl 



s its civ Many farmers, 

to nv j have he landed to theifc 

• v:t ao-.i that of their neighbors, tnai in 

clearing lands on the; boiders of creeks, have made 

it a practice to tkro.w every tree into the creek near 

ettdng and to roil mlargc logs for the pur- 

• :-tl'y dispo>J:g ol them ; thereby 

cijeatii ..':e destruction oi low grounds and 

i them — -that ot : sets and bridges 

Tlies. No law, I think, couicl 

be m ta*y than oue imposing a heavy fine on 

those in - bank tffr&uch practice-}* for what in- 

■ducem* mts has a person tb clean -v.- a stream which 

may run through his farrn, m order tb give it a free 

and qn&hstfu ted channel, if one above him has the 

liberty of filling it up with !- gs, trees and brush, to 

be brought down by tbe Srsl i: 

Such laws are not ivovi ^ states, 

and to them the*? -are hide - \ • f s >n e of their 
finest iariwS. li h inly farm- 

ing, are not sufticier.t inducements to clean up our 
creeks and rivulets, s< W" on them unob- 

structed currents, and -cite their borders, the 

fertility 'or* these borders, and the advantages gamed 
to the adjacent grounds would be sufficient conside- 
rations. 

After haying cleaned .orders of our streams,, 

she next step should be to clean out the streams 
themselves- This may first be done by removing 
the logs and stones and rubbish lying immediately 
iri their channels ; cutting also through veins of rigid 
earth, paring off sharp points, and widening the chan- 
nel where too narrow, will more effectually enable 
tream to do a part of the work itself by deep^ 
enirig its bed the more rapidly. When the course 
of a stream is in a straight inn , or nearly so, it hard- 
ly ever overflows its banks, unless the stream rises 



•RAININfJi- 

much above its common level. But the most com- 
mon cause of streams encroaching on their banks, is 
tht resistance occasioned by a sudden bend. In low 
grounds it is therefore of advantage to straighten the 
course of the streatri, for every impediment, or ob- 
struction, will naturally cause the water to rise high- 
er than it otherwise would do, and as such bends 
have that effect consequently in the time of a fresh, 
the water wifl overflow a greater extent of ground, 
and to a greater depth, than if the stream had a free 
and uninterrupted course straight forward. 

But the course ot a stream should not be entirely 
straight, as it gives such a force to the current, as 
to expose a sandy or crumbling soil to constant wear- 
ing, and d voting the point upon which it expends 
its greatest fun. to great injur) ; gentlt bends arc 
pr< ferred as they check the »;■ I cur- 

rents. If the windings of a stream cannot be alter- 
ed, and encroacfrment are making on some part of 
the banks, it must first be considered, whethei 
force of the water can be i to another place 

where Kss injury will he don. . In straightening 
streams and cutii. -.■'.. ■ ■ 
always be adhered to. v In doing .his, h 
ing chann 

rains pi anj kind, one <>1 th. mosi i us, and 
is to leav 
b rders, so as to dan? • ut a co n of 

the water the drain -was intended to receive, <*o.d 
to destroy all tin crops within us influ< 
earth ought uneXi ed in 

curing hollows and sunken pi, 

of the dri-in every where lowj jacent 

ground. By this means ini 

, and more^rapidly return to the channel; be- 
as the water is every where trickling in; 
irains as ti.s. rain falls, it has more 



l\o IN ' : 

of it, and for the same reason an excess will soon* 

be reduced. Both the rapid and complete reducti< 

of floods 33 of great IffitKirtanCe to crops, few ot whicl 

will v . -,ry short immep 

sion. They are ruined for want of a remedy against 

Water. ' the lowest ground, with' 

•.he ground desigmd to be drained, 

I -by ridge3 and titptying into the 

tOSt perfe< 






NOTES 



[JVWfi Jl. page 80. j 

SciciipUon of the Rafter Level menti- ned in Xo 1?, on Eorizonl&i 
Ploughing. 

(See Engraving.) 

It consists of two legs of common wed, A and B, which are; 
joined together at the top, and their feet or Lo-Sv&r ends • 
ed to the distance uf ten feet span. The legs are connected 
below by a cross bar, as delineated in the. cut. From \.he angle 
at the top, a plumm t G i- suspended by a small cord ; which, 
when a mark is mad.: in the middle of theebnnectii 
the two legs are adjn , 
Chat the horizoi ■■ ascertaii 

Many fanners are getting in* :' their 

hilly land horizontally, by the eye, than v. hi- 
be a worse criterion, as it cannot be done- correctly, an 

nd li i aggravate the evil it pret< i it i 

recommended to all those who wish to | 
land from washing, to use the rafter level an ling to 

the manner pointed out ii f his work. I an in- 

str im nt so simple in its Consti 1 so easily us- d, as 

to make it inexcusable in any man to d 
jrates broken laud, 



IB 



[Note h. fOge i 

(Refemnc: to No. 27, on Wheat.) 

"Those "who have 'adopted the mode of cultivating Xndiar. 
in ridges, find a difficulty m putting the same ground in 
wheat. They are in the practice of destroying or plou 
down the ridges in potting in wheat, whereby the labor f fal- 
lowing up th ground for c>rn again is greatly increai 
One oi" u h -e greatest advantages gamed by ridges and furrows, 
Is the ease and efficacy with which the ridges are reversed, 
when the ground conies r- und In course again, to be put in 
cofcn. The water furrow enables us to bury deep the litter, 
r clover* produced by inclosing; so that 
irn is planted above it ind sprouts in a bed of clean earth. 
Much labor is also saved in fallowing, because the fie p 
w .ter furrow enables the plough to cur off a wide land on 
i it, by which it .is h!lc.' t needing itself a 

touch of tiie plough share, leaving a st »'idge, 

row, that- a large plough, with tw< I >ards, splits 

it. And thus three furrows reverie ridges of five and in half 
feet wide, Ins. » eat,> therefore, the ridges should be 
preserved, and the water furrow* left deep and wide and 
it wheat, and many experiments have proved, that the 
is i hereby increased, however the surface may be con- 
in the subsequent prepa- 
ration for corn, and the improvement by deepening the soil. 



21-9 



[JVbte C. page 191.] 
JVo. 1. 
Skimmer or Plough for weeding Corn. 




a a. An iron rod I £ inch wide and 1 inch thick. A' one 
end an eye for the helve. At the other a duck's bill — 25 in- 
ches Long — having a small crook at the junction of the wings 
next the eye, to raise the eye two indies, that it maj not drag 
en t le gi "and. 

b b. Tae outer edges oi the wings, to be 26 inches apart. 

19 



2£G 



J-JOXkS. 



ccc ccc. The cutting edges of the wings, to be on a level 
with the lowest part of the bar. 

ddd ddd. The upper edges of the wings, to be three int bet 
r than the lower edges. The wings are to be made 
•ing, to increase the ease with whicii the earth falls ove^ 
them. 

ee ee. Length of wing? — 20 inches. 

f f. Width of do — 5 inches. The lower edges of the wings 
to be sharp, and ought to be steeled. 

:!epih of its woik is regulated by the .raceso 



J\T 0t 2: 
'vowel hoed plough for opening water furrows. 









NOTES. 221 

i ft. Length of hoe — 20 inc 

Si tU Length of the eye — 4 

c ;-.. Width of me hoe — 16 do. 

He He. The cutting edges of the hoe 18 inches. TV etf- 
irly twoiiiches lower than the centre H tl Sj 
he eye may stand that distance above the earth — a; 
lidt to drag' on '- an ilso to cause the tinder part 
lo ■ - 

H b. Tl - the coulter — 6 inches. The coulter is 

in a line with in 

H f. Tne length of the coulter — 22 inches. 

H e. Thelower part of the coulter 12 inches long — vith 
ttn catting edge, g g g. Toe coulti r is fixed at the < : 

the plough by a tenon and mortice. The forw^r on the end 
of the plough — the 1 tfter m i-ht he id oi the coulti r. 

eg. Widtn of the upper end of the coulter 2 inches — of 
th< cutting part 3. 

ak ak. Mo-ildboauls — Length 18 inches — Width 9 inches. 

k k. iVidth between the cnoui (boards — 20 inches. — In the 
eye is fixed a wooden helve, to which the inouldboar 
nailed. Theupperemi >f the coulter is made fast in the 

i. A pin 1 inch dtiineter, let into tne mouldboarda and 
Wedged, to fceep them from being pressed together. 



X0TE3« 




a b Length of rnouldboards — 12 inches. 
b c. Width between the m >uldboards — 6do. 
b d. Width of niQuidix>urds~-& do, 



22^ 



REMARKS. 

The above are the implements alluded to in the remarks 
on the cultivation of Indian corn, pag< 198 of this woik. 

No. 1, much preferable to a harrow as a weeding plough* 
It is drawn by one horse or one ox. 

No. 2, is the best plough which has been tried for opening 
■water furrows, to be drawn by two or more horses. The 
deeper these furrows are made, the more efficacious they are 
in improving the soil. 

No. 3 This plough is a copy of No 2, with the addition of 
the interior mouldboards, and the exclusion of the pin. It 
ought not to work deep. It immediately precedes the plant- 
ing of the corn. The wide mouldboards bestow a weeding 
on the ridge ; the narrow, form a central narrow fun 
depositing the corn in, to be covert d by the foot with the 
mould turned up by the mouklboards. The pl-ugh is drawn 
by two horses, by which means the furrow is run straight, 




^ 



i.v7^r. 



preface, » 

f l^-vluctory Essay, 

Fi ' Principles of Ygricnltu e, No. 1, 

F Principles of Agriculture, No. 2, 

Improvement of Land, N> 1, 

Improvement of Land, No. 2, 

Improvement of Land, No. 3, 

M urps, o 1, 

h\ uures, No 2, 

M i:iire<, N i .?, • 

M inures No 4. 

Manures, N ». 5, - - 

Manures, No 6, 

• ng, - 

.ell Ploughing, 
Ploughing, No 1, 
2, 
H > 7.0' tal P oughing, 
- 
les. No l; - 1 

•> , ■ jses, N - 2, 
Grasses, N 3, 
brasses, No 4, 

os c< r Good Tillage, No 1, 
itages ot Good T.ila<;e, o. 2, 
;■ o Paris, 
Red Clm er. 
W >,eai, No t, 
Wheat, No. 2, 
Wheat, No. 3, 
Turn 

ds, No. I, 
Orchards, No 2, 
':>. 3, 
i Trees, 

- 
on, 

iportanceof Agriculture, 
H n .: for the improvement of a 

a, 
], ' 

Indian Torn, No 2, 



gnculmre in 



Pag? 



6 
11 

16 

20 
25 
30 
33 

3T 

4? 

4r 

52 

sr 

62 

78 

83 

87 

90 

94 

99 

104 

108 

112 

118 

123 

128 

133 

139 

144 

148 

151 

157 

162 

167 

172 

177 

184 
187 



IK&EX* 



Live Stock, No. 1, 
Ljv - ? S>>;ck, No. 2, 
Oxen, • 

Cattle, 
Hops, 

Droning, No 1, 
Draining, No. 2, 

Jbioics, 



195 

198 
202 
205 
209 
212 
2t7 



Date Due 
































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1 
























I 








1 














1 


















1 








1 




































L. B. Ca 


:. No. 1 137 





i.4 A378S G-./ 6568 



